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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  89        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  93        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 106        ),
 107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 139        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 141        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 142        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 143        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 144        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 145        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 146        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 148        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 150    }
 151
 152    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 153    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 154    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 155
 156    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 157    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 158    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 159
 160    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 161    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 162
 163    # Always do union distinct or union all
 164    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 165
 166    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 167    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 168
 169    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 170    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 171
 172    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 173    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 174
 175    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 176    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 177
 178    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 179    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 180
 181    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 182    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 183
 184    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 185    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 186
 187    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 188    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 189
 190    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 191    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 192
 193    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 194    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 195
 196    # Whether join hints should be generated
 197    JOIN_HINTS = True
 198
 199    # Whether table hints should be generated
 200    TABLE_HINTS = True
 201
 202    # Whether query hints should be generated
 203    QUERY_HINTS = True
 204
 205    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 206    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 207
 208    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 209    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 210
 211    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 212    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 213
 214    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 215    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 216
 217    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 218    RETURNING_END = True
 219
 220    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 221    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 222
 223    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 224    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 225
 226    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 227    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 228
 229    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 230    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 231
 232    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 233    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 234
 235    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 236    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 237    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 238    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 239
 240    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 241    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 242
 243    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 244    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 245
 246    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 247    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 248
 249    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 250    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 251
 252    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 253    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 254
 255    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 256    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 257
 258    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 259    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 260
 261    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 262    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 263
 264    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 265    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 266
 267    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 268    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 269
 270    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 272
 273    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 274    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 275
 276    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 277    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 278
 279    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 280    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 281
 282    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 283    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 284
 285    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 286    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 287
 288    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 289    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 290
 291    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 292    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 293
 294    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 295    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 296
 297    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 298    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 299
 300    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 301    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 302
 303    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 304    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 305
 306    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 307    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 308
 309    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 310    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 311
 312    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 313    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 314
 315    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 316    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 317    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 318
 319    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 320    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 321
 322    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 323    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 324
 325    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 326    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 327
 328    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 329    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 330
 331    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 332    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 333
 334    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 335    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 336
 337    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 338    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 339    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 340    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 341
 342    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 343        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 346        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 347        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 348        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 349        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 350        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 351        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 352        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 353    }
 354
 355    STAR_MAPPING = {
 356        "except": "EXCEPT",
 357        "replace": "REPLACE",
 358    }
 359
 360    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 361        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 362        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 363        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 364        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 365        "DAYS": "DAY",
 366        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 367        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 368        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 369        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 370    }
 371
 372    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 373        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 374        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 375        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 376        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 377        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 378            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 379            if e.args.get("windows")
 380            else ""
 381        ),
 382    }
 383
 384    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 385
 386    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 387
 388    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 389    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 390
 391    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 392        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 393        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 397        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 399        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 404        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 405        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 412        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 413        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 414        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 415        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 416        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 417        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 419        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 421        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 427        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 428        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 429        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 430        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 431        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 433        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 436        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 439        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 450        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 452        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 453        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 458        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 465        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 466        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 467        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468    }
 469
 470    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 471    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 472
 473    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 474    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 475        exp.Create,
 476        exp.Delete,
 477        exp.Drop,
 478        exp.From,
 479        exp.Insert,
 480        exp.Join,
 481        exp.Select,
 482        exp.Union,
 483        exp.Update,
 484        exp.Where,
 485        exp.With,
 486    )
 487
 488    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 489    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 490        exp.Binary,
 491        exp.Union,
 492    )
 493
 494    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 495    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 496        exp.Column,
 497        exp.Literal,
 498        exp.Neg,
 499        exp.Paren,
 500    )
 501
 502    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 503        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 504        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 505        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 506        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 507    }
 508
 509    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 510    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 511
 512    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 513
 514    __slots__ = (
 515        "pretty",
 516        "identify",
 517        "normalize",
 518        "pad",
 519        "_indent",
 520        "normalize_functions",
 521        "unsupported_level",
 522        "max_unsupported",
 523        "leading_comma",
 524        "max_text_width",
 525        "comments",
 526        "dialect",
 527        "unsupported_messages",
 528        "_escaped_quote_end",
 529        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 530    )
 531
 532    def __init__(
 533        self,
 534        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 535        identify: str | bool = False,
 536        normalize: bool = False,
 537        pad: int = 2,
 538        indent: int = 2,
 539        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 540        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 541        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 542        leading_comma: bool = False,
 543        max_text_width: int = 80,
 544        comments: bool = True,
 545        dialect: DialectType = None,
 546    ):
 547        import sqlglot
 548        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 549
 550        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 551        self.identify = identify
 552        self.normalize = normalize
 553        self.pad = pad
 554        self._indent = indent
 555        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 556        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 557        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 558        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 559        self.comments = comments
 560        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 561
 562        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 563        self.normalize_functions = (
 564            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 565        )
 566
 567        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 568        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 569            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 570        )
 571        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 572            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 573        )
 574
 575    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 576        """
 577        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 578
 579        Args:
 580            expression: The syntax tree.
 581            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 582                it is safer to copy.
 583
 584        Returns:
 585            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 586        """
 587        if copy:
 588            expression = expression.copy()
 589
 590        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 591
 592        self.unsupported_messages = []
 593        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 594
 595        if self.pretty:
 596            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 597
 598        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 599            return sql
 600
 601        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 602            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 603                logger.warning(msg)
 604        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 605            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 606
 607        return sql
 608
 609    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 610        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 611        if (
 612            not expression.parent
 613            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 614            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 615        ):
 616            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 617
 618            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 619
 620        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 621            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 622
 623            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 624
 625        return expression
 626
 627    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 628        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 629            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 630        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 631
 632    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 633        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 634
 635    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 636        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 637
 638    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 639        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 640        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 641        return comment
 642
 643    def maybe_comment(
 644        self,
 645        sql: str,
 646        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 647        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 648        separated: bool = False,
 649    ) -> str:
 650        comments = (
 651            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 652            if self.comments
 653            else None
 654        )
 655
 656        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 657            return sql
 658
 659        comments_sql = " ".join(
 660            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 661        )
 662
 663        if not comments_sql:
 664            return sql
 665
 666        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 667
 668        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 669            return (
 670                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 671                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 672                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 673            )
 674
 675        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 676
 677    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 678        this_sql = self.indent(
 679            (
 680                self.sql(expression)
 681                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 682                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 683            ),
 684            level=1,
 685            pad=0,
 686        )
 687        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 688
 689    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 690        original = self.identify
 691        self.identify = False
 692        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 693        self.identify = original
 694        return result
 695
 696    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 697        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 698            return name.upper()
 699        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 700            return name.lower()
 701        return name
 702
 703    def indent(
 704        self,
 705        sql: str,
 706        level: int = 0,
 707        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 708        skip_first: bool = False,
 709        skip_last: bool = False,
 710    ) -> str:
 711        if not self.pretty:
 712            return sql
 713
 714        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 715        lines = sql.split("\n")
 716
 717        return "\n".join(
 718            (
 719                line
 720                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 721                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 722            )
 723            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 724        )
 725
 726    def sql(
 727        self,
 728        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 729        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 730        comment: bool = True,
 731    ) -> str:
 732        if not expression:
 733            return ""
 734
 735        if isinstance(expression, str):
 736            return expression
 737
 738        if key:
 739            value = expression.args.get(key)
 740            if value:
 741                return self.sql(value)
 742            return ""
 743
 744        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 745
 746        if callable(transform):
 747            sql = transform(self, expression)
 748        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 749            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 750
 751            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 752                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 753            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 754                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 755            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 756                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 757            else:
 758                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 759        else:
 760            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 761
 762        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 763
 764    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 765        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 766        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 767        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 768
 769    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 770        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 771        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 772        options = expression.args.get("options")
 773        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 774        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 775        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 776        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 777        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 778
 779    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 780        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 781            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 782        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 783        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 784
 785    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 786        return ".".join(
 787            self.sql(part)
 788            for part in (
 789                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 790                expression.args.get("db"),
 791                expression.args.get("table"),
 792                expression.args.get("this"),
 793            )
 794            if part
 795        )
 796
 797    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 798        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 799
 800        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 801            join_mark = ""
 802            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 803
 804        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 805
 806    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 808        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 809        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 810        return f"{position}{this}"
 811
 812    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 813        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 814        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 815        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 816        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 817        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 818        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 819        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 820        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 821
 822        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 823            kind = ""
 824
 825        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 826
 827    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 829        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 830        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 831
 832    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 834        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 835            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 836        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 837            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 838        else:
 839            persisted = ""
 840        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 841
 842    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 843        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 844
 845    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 846        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 847            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 848        else:
 849            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 850
 851        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 852
 853    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 854        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 855    ) -> str:
 856        this = ""
 857        if expression.this is not None:
 858            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 859            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 860
 861        start = expression.args.get("start")
 862        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 863        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 864        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 865        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 866        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 867        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 868        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 869        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 870        cycle_sql = ""
 871
 872        if cycle is not None:
 873            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 874            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 875
 876        sequence_opts = ""
 877        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 878            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 879            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 880
 881        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 882        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 883
 884        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 885
 886    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 887        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 888    ) -> str:
 889        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 890        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 891        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 892
 893    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 894        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 895    ) -> str:
 896        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 897
 898    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 899        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 900
 901    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 902        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 903
 904    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 905        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 906        if desc is not None:
 907            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 908        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 909
 910    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 912        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 913        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 914        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 915        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 916        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 917        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 918
 919    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 920        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 921
 922    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 923        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 924        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 925        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 926
 927        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 928
 929        properties_sql = ""
 930        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 931            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 932        ):
 933            properties_sql = self.sql(
 934                exp.Properties(
 935                    expressions=[
 936                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 937                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 938                    ]
 939                )
 940            )
 941
 942        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 943        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 944
 945        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 946        if expression_sql:
 947            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 948
 949            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 950                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 951                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 952                        exp.Properties(
 953                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 954                        ),
 955                        wrapped=False,
 956                    )
 957                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 958                else:
 959                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 960
 961        postindex_props_sql = ""
 962        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 963            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 964                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 965                wrapped=False,
 966                prefix=" ",
 967            )
 968
 969        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 970        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 971        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 972
 973        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 974        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 975
 976        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 977        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 978            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 979                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 980                sep=" ",
 981                prefix=" ",
 982                wrapped=False,
 983            )
 984
 985        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 986
 987        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 988        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 989            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 990                exp.Properties(
 991                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 992                ),
 993                sep=" ",
 994                prefix=" ",
 995                wrapped=False,
 996            )
 997
 998        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 999        no_schema_binding = (
1000            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1001        )
1002
1003        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1004        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1005
1006        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1008
1009    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1010        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1011        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1012        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1013        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1014        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1015        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1016        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1017        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1018        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1019        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1020
1021        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1022        if cache is None:
1023            cache_str = ""
1024        elif cache is True:
1025            cache_str = " CACHE"
1026        else:
1027            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1028
1029        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1030        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1031
1032        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1033
1034    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1036        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1037        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1038        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1039
1040    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1041        style = expression.args.get("style")
1042        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1043        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1044
1045    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1046        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1047        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1048
1049    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1050        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1051        if with_:
1052            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1053        return sql
1054
1055    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1056        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1057        recursive = (
1058            "RECURSIVE "
1059            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1060            else ""
1061        )
1062
1063        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1064
1065    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1066        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1067
1068        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1069        if materialized is False:
1070            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1071        elif materialized:
1072            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1073
1074        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1075
1076    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1077        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1078        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1079        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1080
1081        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1082            columns = ""
1083            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1084
1085        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1086            alias = "_t"
1087
1088        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1089
1090    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1092        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1093            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1094        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1095
1096    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1098        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1099            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1100        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1101
1102    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1104        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1105            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1106        return this
1107
1108    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1110        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1111
1112        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1113            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1114            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1115
1116        if escape:
1117            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1118        else:
1119            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1120
1121        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1122        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1123
1124    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1125        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1126        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1127
1128    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1130        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1131        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1132        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1133
1134    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1135        type_value = expression.this
1136
1137        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1138            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1139        else:
1140            type_sql = (
1141                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1142                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1143                else type_value
1144            )
1145
1146        nested = ""
1147        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1148        values = ""
1149
1150        if interior:
1151            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1152                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1153                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1154                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1155                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1156                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1157            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1158                nested = f" {interior}"
1159            else:
1160                nested = f"({interior})"
1161
1162        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1163        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1164            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1165            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1166        ):
1167            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1168
1169        return type_sql
1170
1171    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1172        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1173        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1174        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1175        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1176
1177    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1180        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1181        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1182        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1183        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1184        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1185        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1186        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1187        if self.RETURNING_END:
1188            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1189        else:
1190            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1191        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1192
1193    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1195        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1196        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1197        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1198        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1199        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1200        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1201        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1202        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1203        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1204        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1205
1206    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1207        return self.set_operations(expression)
1208
1209    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1210        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1211
1212    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1213        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1214        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1215        count = expression.args.get("count")
1216        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1217        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1218            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1219        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1220        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1221
1222    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1223        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1224            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1225            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1226            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1227
1228        agg = expression.this
1229        agg_arg = agg.this
1230        cond = expression.expression.this
1231        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1232        return self.sql(agg)
1233
1234    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1235        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1236            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1237            return ""
1238
1239        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1240
1241    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1242        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1243        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1244        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1245        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1246        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1247        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1248        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1249        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1250        if include:
1251            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1252        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1253        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1254        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1255        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1256
1257        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1258
1259    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1260        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1261        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1262        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1263        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1264        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1265        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1266        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1267
1268        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1269
1270        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1271        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1272
1273    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1274        text = expression.name
1275        lower = text.lower()
1276        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1277        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1278        if (
1279            expression.quoted
1280            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1281            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1282            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1283        ):
1284            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1285        return text
1286
1287    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1288        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1289        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1290        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1291        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1292        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1293
1294    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1295        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1296        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1297
1298    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1299        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1300
1301    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1302        root_properties = []
1303        with_properties = []
1304
1305        for p in expression.expressions:
1306            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1307            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1308                with_properties.append(p)
1309            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1310                root_properties.append(p)
1311
1312        return self.root_properties(
1313            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1314        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1315
1316    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1317        if properties.expressions:
1318            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1319        return ""
1320
1321    def properties(
1322        self,
1323        properties: exp.Properties,
1324        prefix: str = "",
1325        sep: str = ", ",
1326        suffix: str = "",
1327        wrapped: bool = True,
1328    ) -> str:
1329        if properties.expressions:
1330            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1331            if expressions:
1332                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1333                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1334        return ""
1335
1336    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1337        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1338
1339    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1340        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1341        for p in properties.expressions:
1342            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1343            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1344                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1345            else:
1346                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1347
1348        return properties_locs
1349
1350    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1351        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1352            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1353        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1354
1355    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1356        property_cls = expression.__class__
1357        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1358            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1359
1360        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1361        if not property_name:
1362            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1363
1364        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1365
1366    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1367        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1368            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1369            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1370
1371            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1372            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1373                like = f"({like})"
1374
1375            return like
1376
1377        if expression.expressions:
1378            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1379
1380        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1381        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1382
1383    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1384        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1385        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1386        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1387
1388    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1389        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1390        local = expression.args.get("local")
1391        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1392        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1393        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1394        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1395        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1396
1397    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1398        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1399        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1400        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1401
1402    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1403        if expression.args.get("default"):
1404            property = "DEFAULT"
1405        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1406            property = "ON"
1407        else:
1408            property = "OFF"
1409        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1410
1411    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1412        if expression.args.get("no"):
1413            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1414        if expression.args.get("default"):
1415            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1416
1417        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1418        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1419
1420    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1421        default = expression.args.get("default")
1422        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1423        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1424        if default or minimum or maximum:
1425            if default:
1426                prop = "DEFAULT"
1427            elif minimum:
1428                prop = "MINIMUM"
1429            else:
1430                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1431            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1432        units = expression.args.get("units")
1433        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1434        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1435
1436    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1437        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1438        always = expression.args.get("always")
1439        default = expression.args.get("default")
1440        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1441        never = expression.args.get("never")
1442
1443        if autotemp is not None:
1444            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1445        elif always:
1446            prop = "ALWAYS"
1447        elif default:
1448            prop = "DEFAULT"
1449        elif manual:
1450            prop = "MANUAL"
1451        elif never:
1452            prop = "NEVER"
1453        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1454
1455    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1456        no = expression.args.get("no")
1457        no = " NO" if no else ""
1458        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1459        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1460        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1461        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1462        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1463
1464    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1465        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1466            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1467        if expression.this:
1468            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1470            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1471
1472        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1473        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1474        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1475
1476    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1478
1479        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1480        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1481            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1482        else:
1483            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1484
1485        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1486
1487    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1488        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1489        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1490        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1491        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1492        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1493        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1494        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1495
1496    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1497        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1498        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1499        statistics_sql = ""
1500        if statistics is not None:
1501            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1502        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1503
1504    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1505        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1506
1507        if expression.this:
1508            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1509            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1510
1511            if expression.expression:
1512                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1513                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1514
1515            sql = f"{sql})"
1516
1517        return f"{sql})"
1518
1519    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1520        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1521        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1522
1523        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1524            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1525        else:
1526            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1527
1528        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1529        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1530        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1531        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1532        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1533        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1534        if is_function:
1535            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1536        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1537
1538        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1539        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1540        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1541        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1542        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1543        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1544        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1545        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1546
1547        if self.RETURNING_END:
1548            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1549        else:
1550            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1551
1552        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1553        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1554
1555    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1556        return self.set_operations(expression)
1557
1558    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1559        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1560
1561    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1562        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1563
1564    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1566        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1568        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1569        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1570
1571    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1572        return expression.name
1573
1574    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1575        return expression.name
1576
1577    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1578        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1579
1580        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1581        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1582
1583        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1584        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1585        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1586
1587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1588        if expressions:
1589            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1590            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1591
1592        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1593
1594    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1595        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1596
1597    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1598        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1599        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1600        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1601        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1602        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1603        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1604        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1605        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1606        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1607        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1608        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1609        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1610        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1611
1612    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1613        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1614
1615    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1616        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1617        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1618        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1619        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1620
1621    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1624        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1625        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1626
1627    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1628        return ".".join(
1629            self.sql(part)
1630            for part in (
1631                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1632                expression.args.get("db"),
1633                expression.args.get("this"),
1634            )
1635            if part is not None
1636        )
1637
1638    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1639        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1640        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1641        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1642        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1643        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1644        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1645        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1646        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1647        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1648        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1649        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1650        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1651        joins = self.indent(
1652            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1653        )
1654        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1655
1656        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1657        if file_format:
1658            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1659            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1660            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1661
1662        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1663        if ordinality:
1664            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1665            alias = ""
1666
1667        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1668        if when:
1669            table = f"{table} {when}"
1670
1671        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1672
1673    def tablesample_sql(
1674        self,
1675        expression: exp.TableSample,
1676        sep: str = " AS ",
1677        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1678    ) -> str:
1679        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1680            table = expression.this.copy()
1681            table.set("alias", None)
1682            this = self.sql(table)
1683            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1684        else:
1685            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686            alias = ""
1687
1688        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1689        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1690        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1691        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1692        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1693        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1694        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1695        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1696        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1697
1698        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1699        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1700            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1701
1702        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1703        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1704            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1705
1706        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1707        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1708            expr = f"({expr})"
1709
1710        return (
1711            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1712        )
1713
1714    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1715        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1716
1717        if expression.this:
1718            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1719            if not expressions:
1720                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1721
1722            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1723            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1724            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1725            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1726            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1727
1728        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1729        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1730        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1731        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1732        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1733        if include_nulls is not None:
1734            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1735        else:
1736            nulls = ""
1737        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1738
1739    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1740        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1741        kind = expression.text("kind")
1742        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1743        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1744
1745    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1746        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1747
1748    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1750        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1751        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1752        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1753        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1754        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1755        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1756        if self.RETURNING_END:
1757            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1758        else:
1759            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1760        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1761        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1762
1763    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1764        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1765
1766        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1767        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1768            args = self.expressions(expression)
1769            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1770            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1771            values = (
1772                f"({values})"
1773                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1774                else values
1775            )
1776            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1777
1778        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1779        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1780        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1781
1782        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1783
1784        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1785            row = tup.expressions
1786
1787            if i == 0 and column_names:
1788                row = [
1789                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1790                ]
1791
1792            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1793
1794        if self.pretty:
1795            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1796            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1797            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1798            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1799            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1800
1801        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1802        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1803        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1804
1805    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1806        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1807
1808    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1809        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1810        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1811        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1812
1813    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1814        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1815
1816    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1817        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1818        if group_by_all is True:
1819            modifier = " ALL"
1820        elif group_by_all is False:
1821            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1822        else:
1823            modifier = ""
1824
1825        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1826
1827        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1828        grouping_sets = (
1829            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1830        )
1831
1832        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1833        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1834            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1835        else:
1836            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1837            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1838
1839        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1840        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1841            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1842        else:
1843            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1844            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1845
1846        groupings = csv(
1847            grouping_sets,
1848            cube_sql,
1849            rollup_sql,
1850            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1851            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1852        )
1853
1854        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1855            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1856
1857        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1858
1859    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1860        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1861        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1862
1863    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1864        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1865        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1866        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1867        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1868        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1869        return start + connect
1870
1871    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1872        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1873
1874    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1875        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1876            side = None
1877        else:
1878            side = expression.side
1879
1880        op_sql = " ".join(
1881            op
1882            for op in (
1883                expression.method,
1884                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1885                side,
1886                expression.kind,
1887                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1888            )
1889            if op
1890        )
1891        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1892        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1893        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1894        using = expression.args.get("using")
1895
1896        if not on_sql and using:
1897            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1898
1899        this = expression.this
1900        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1901
1902        if on_sql:
1903            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1904            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1905            if using:
1906                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1907            else:
1908                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1909        elif not op_sql:
1910            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1911                return f" {this_sql}"
1912
1913            return f", {this_sql}"
1914
1915        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1916        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1917
1918    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1919        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1920        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1921        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1922
1923    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1924        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1925
1926        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1927        if cross_apply is True:
1928            op = "INNER JOIN "
1929        elif cross_apply is False:
1930            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1931        else:
1932            op = ""
1933
1934        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1935
1936    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1938
1939        if expression.args.get("view"):
1940            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1941            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1942            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1943            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1944            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1945            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1946
1947        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1948        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1949        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1950
1951    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1953
1954        args = [
1955            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1956            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1957            if e
1958        ]
1959
1960        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1961        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1963        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1964
1965        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1966
1967    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        value = expression.expression
1970        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1971        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1972        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1973        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1974
1975    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1976        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1977        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1979        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1980        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1981        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1982        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1983        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1984
1985    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1986        expressions = (
1987            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1988        )
1989        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1990        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1991
1992    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1993        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1994
1995    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1996        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1997            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1998            return ""
1999
2000        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2002        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2003        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2004
2005        if wait is not None:
2006            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2007                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2008            else:
2009                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2010
2011        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2012
2013    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2014        text = expression.this or ""
2015        if expression.is_string:
2016            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2017        return text
2018
2019    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2020        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2021            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2022            text = "".join(
2023                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2024            )
2025
2026        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2027            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2028        )
2029
2030    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2031        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2032        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2033        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2034        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2035        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2036        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2037        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2038        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2039        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2040        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2041        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2042
2043    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2044        return "NULL"
2045
2046    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2047        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2048
2049    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2051        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2052        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2053        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2054        interpolated_values = [
2055            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2056            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2057        ]
2058        interpolate = (
2059            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2060        )
2061        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2062
2063    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2064        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2065        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2066        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2067        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2068        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2069        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2070        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2071
2072    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2073        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2074
2075    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2076        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2077
2078    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2079        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2080
2081    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2082        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2083        asc = not desc
2084
2085        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2086        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2087        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2088        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2089        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2090
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092
2093        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2094        nulls_sort_change = ""
2095        if nulls_first and (
2096            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2097        ):
2098            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2099        elif (
2100            nulls_last
2101            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2102            and not nulls_are_last
2103        ):
2104            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2105
2106        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2107        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2108            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2109            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2110                self.unsupported(
2111                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2112                )
2113                nulls_sort_change = ""
2114            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2115                if expression.this.is_int:
2116                    self.unsupported(
2117                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2118                    )
2119                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2120                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2121                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2122                nulls_sort_change = ""
2123
2124        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2125        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2126
2127        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2128
2129    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2130        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2131        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2132
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134
2135        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2136
2137    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2138        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2139        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2140        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2141        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2142        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2143        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2144        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2145        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2146        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2147        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2148        definition_sqls = [
2149            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2150            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2151        ]
2152        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2153        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2154        body = "".join(
2155            (
2156                partition,
2157                order,
2158                measures,
2159                rows,
2160                after,
2161                pattern,
2162                define,
2163            )
2164        )
2165        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2166        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2167        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2168
2169    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2170        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2171
2172        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2173            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2174        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2175            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2176
2177        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2178        if options:
2179            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2180
2181        return csv(
2182            *sqls,
2183            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2184            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2185            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2186            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2187            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2188            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2189            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2190            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2191            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2192            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2193            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2194            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2195            options,
2196            sep="",
2197        )
2198
2199    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2200        return ""
2201
2202    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2203        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2204    ) -> t.List[str]:
2205        return [
2206            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2207            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2208        ]
2209
2210    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2211        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2212        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2213        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2214
2215    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2216        into = expression.args.get("into")
2217        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2218            into.pop()
2219
2220        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2221        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2222        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2223        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2224
2225        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2226        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2227            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2228            limit.pop()
2229        else:
2230            top = ""
2231
2232        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2233
2234        if kind:
2235            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2236                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2237            else:
2238                if kind == "STRUCT":
2239                    expressions = self.expressions(
2240                        sqls=[
2241                            self.sql(
2242                                exp.Struct(
2243                                    expressions=[
2244                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2245                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2246                                        else e
2247                                        for e in expression.expressions
2248                                    ]
2249                                )
2250                            )
2251                        ]
2252                    )
2253                kind = ""
2254
2255        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2256        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2257        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2258        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2259        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2260            expression,
2261            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2262            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2263            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2264        )
2265
2266        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2267
2268        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2269            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2270                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2271            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2272                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2273            else:
2274                table_kind = ""
2275            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2276
2277        return sql
2278
2279    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2281        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2282        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2283
2284    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2285        if expression.expressions:
2286            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2287        return ""
2288
2289    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2290        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2291        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2292        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2293        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2294        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2295
2296    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2298        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2299
2300    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2302        kind = expression.text("kind")
2303        if kind:
2304            kind = f"{kind}."
2305        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2306
2307    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2308        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2309
2310    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2311        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2312        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2313
2314        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2315        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2316
2317        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2318        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2319
2320    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2321        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2322        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2323
2324    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2325        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2326            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2327            order = expression.args.get("order")
2328
2329            if limit or order:
2330                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2331
2332                if limit:
2333                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2334                if order:
2335                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2336                return self.sql(select)
2337
2338        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2339        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2340
2341        while stack:
2342            node = stack.pop()
2343
2344            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2345                stack.append(node.expression)
2346                stack.append(
2347                    self.maybe_comment(
2348                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2349                        comments=node.comments,
2350                        separated=True,
2351                    )
2352                )
2353                stack.append(node.this)
2354            else:
2355                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2356
2357        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2358        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2359        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2360
2361    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2362        return self.set_operations(expression)
2363
2364    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2365        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2366        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2367        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2368        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2369
2370    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2371        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2372
2373        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2374        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2375
2376        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2377            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2378                alias.append("columns", offset)
2379
2380        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2381            columns = alias.columns
2382            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2383        else:
2384            alias = self.sql(alias)
2385
2386        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2387        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2388            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2389        else:
2390            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2391                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2392            elif offset:
2393                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2394            else:
2395                suffix = alias
2396
2397        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2398
2399    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2400        return ""
2401
2402    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2403        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2404        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2405
2406    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2408        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2409        order = expression.args.get("order")
2410        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2411        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2412        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2413        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2414
2415        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2416
2417        first = expression.args.get("first")
2418        if first is None:
2419            first = ""
2420        else:
2421            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2422
2423        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2424            return f"{this} {alias}"
2425
2426        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2427        return f"{this} ({args})"
2428
2429    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2430        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2431        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2432
2433    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2434        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2435        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2436        end = (
2437            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2438            or "CURRENT ROW"
2439        )
2440        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2441
2442    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2444        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2445        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2446
2447    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2449        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2450        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2451        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2452
2453    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2454        return apply_index_offset(
2455            expression.this,
2456            expression.expressions,
2457            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2458        )
2459
2460    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2461        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2462        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2463        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2464
2465    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2466        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2467
2468    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2470        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2471            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2472                this = self.wrap(this)
2473            return f"ANY{this}"
2474        return f"ANY {this}"
2475
2476    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2477        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2478
2479    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2481        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2482
2483        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2484            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2485            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2486
2487        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2488
2489        if default:
2490            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2491
2492        statements.append("END")
2493
2494        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2495            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2496
2497        return " ".join(statements)
2498
2499    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2501        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2502        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2503
2504    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2505        order = expression.args.get("order")
2506        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2507        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2508
2509    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2511        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2512        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2513
2514    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2515        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2516
2517        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2518            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2519        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2520            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2521        else:
2522            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2523
2524    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2525        args = expression.expressions
2526        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2527            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2528
2529        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2530            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2531
2532        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2533            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2534
2535        return args
2536
2537    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2538        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2539
2540        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2541        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2542            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2543
2544        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2545
2546    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2547        return self.func(
2548            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2549        )
2550
2551    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2552        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2553        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2554
2555    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2556        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2557        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2558        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2559        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2560        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2561        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2562        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2563        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2564
2565    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2566        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2567        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2568        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2569        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2570
2571    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2572        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2573
2574    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2575        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2576        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2577        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2578
2579    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2581
2582    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2583        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2584        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2585
2586    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2587        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2588            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2589            if not callable(transform):
2590                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2591                return ""
2592
2593            return transform(self, expression)
2594
2595        if isinstance(expression, int):
2596            return str(expression)
2597
2598        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2599            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2600            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2601        else:
2602            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2603            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2604
2605        return escaped
2606
2607    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2608        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2609
2610    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2611        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2612        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2613
2614        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2615        if unique_keys is not None:
2616            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2617        else:
2618            unique_keys = ""
2619
2620        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2621        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2622        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2623        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2624
2625        return self.func(
2626            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2627            *expression.expressions,
2628            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2629        )
2630
2631    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2632        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2633
2634    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2635        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2636        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2637        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2638        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2639        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2640        return self.func(
2641            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2642        )
2643
2644    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2646        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2647        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2648        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2649        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2650        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2651        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2652        return self.func(
2653            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2654            this,
2655            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2656        )
2657
2658    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2659        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2660        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2661        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2662
2663        if nested_schema:
2664            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2665
2666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2668        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2669        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2670
2671    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2672        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2673
2674    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2676        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2677        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2678        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2679        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2680        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2681        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2682        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2683        return self.func(
2684            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2685        )
2686
2687    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2689        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2690        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2691        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2692        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2693        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2694
2695    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2697        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2698        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2699        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2700        with_ = (
2701            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2702            if expressions
2703            else ""
2704        )
2705        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2706
2707    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2708        query = expression.args.get("query")
2709        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2710        field = expression.args.get("field")
2711        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2712
2713        if query:
2714            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2715        elif unnest:
2716            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2717        elif field:
2718            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2719        else:
2720            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2721
2722        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2723
2724    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2725        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2726
2727    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2728        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2729        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2730            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2731        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2732
2733        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2734            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2735            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2736
2737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2738        if this:
2739            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2740            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2741
2742        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2743
2744    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2745        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2746
2747    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2750        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2751        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2752        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2753        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2754
2755    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2756        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2757
2758    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2759        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2760        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2761
2762    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2763        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2764        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2766        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2767
2768    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2769        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2770
2771    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2772        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2773        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2775
2776    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2777        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2778        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2779
2780        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2781            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2782        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2783            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2784
2785        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2786
2787    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2788        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2789
2790    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2792        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2793        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2794
2795    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2797        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2798        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2799
2800    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2802        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2803        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2804
2805    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2806        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2807
2808    def and_sql(
2809        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2810    ) -> str:
2811        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2812
2813    def or_sql(
2814        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2815    ) -> str:
2816        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2817
2818    def xor_sql(
2819        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2820    ) -> str:
2821        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2822
2823    def connector_sql(
2824        self,
2825        expression: exp.Connector,
2826        op: str,
2827        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2828    ) -> str:
2829        if stack is not None:
2830            if expression.expressions:
2831                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2832            else:
2833                stack.append(expression.right)
2834                if expression.comments:
2835                    for comment in expression.comments:
2836                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2837                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2838            return op
2839
2840        stack = [expression]
2841        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2842        ops = set()
2843
2844        while stack:
2845            node = stack.pop()
2846            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2847                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2848            else:
2849                sql = self.sql(node)
2850                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2851                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2852                else:
2853                    sqls.append(sql)
2854
2855        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2856        return sep.join(sqls)
2857
2858    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2859        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2860
2861    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2862        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2863
2864    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2865        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2866
2867    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2868        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2869
2870    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2871        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2872
2873    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2874        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2875
2876    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2877        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2878        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2879        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2880        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2881        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2882        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2883        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2884
2885    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2886        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2888
2889    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2890        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2891
2892    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2893        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2894            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2895        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2896
2897    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2898        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2899
2900    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2902        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2903        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2904        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2905        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2906        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2907
2908    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2910        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2911        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2912        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2913        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2914        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2915        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2916        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2917        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2918
2919    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2920        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2921        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2922        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2923        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2924
2925        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2926            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2927
2928        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2929
2930    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2931        return "BEGIN"
2932
2933    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2934        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2935        if chain is not None:
2936            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2937
2938        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2939
2940    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2941        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2942        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2943        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2944
2945    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2947
2948        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2949        if dtype:
2950            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2951            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2952            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2953            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2954            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2955
2956        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2957        if default:
2958            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2959
2960        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2961        if comment:
2962            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2963
2964        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2965            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2966
2967        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2968
2969    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2970        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2971            # Remove db from tables
2972            expression = expression.transform(
2973                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2974            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2976        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2977
2978    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2979        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2980        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2981        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2982        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2983
2984    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2985        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2986
2987        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2988            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2989        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2990            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2991        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2992            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2993        else:
2994            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2995
2996        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2997        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2998        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2999        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3000        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
3001
3002    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3003        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3004            return self.expressions(
3005                expression,
3006                key="actions",
3007                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3008            )
3009        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3010
3011    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3012        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3013        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3014        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3015
3016    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3017        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3018
3019    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3020        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3021
3022        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3023            case = exp.case()
3024            for arg in expression.expressions:
3025                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3026            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3027
3028        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3029
3030        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3031        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3032        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3033
3034    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3035        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3036
3037    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3038        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3039
3040    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3041        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3042        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3043        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3044        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3045
3046    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3047        return self.sql(
3048            exp.Cast(
3049                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3050                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3051            )
3052        )
3053
3054    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3055        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3056            return self.func(
3057                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3058            )
3059        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3060
3061    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3062        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3063
3064        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3065            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3066
3067        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3068            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3069                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3070
3071        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3072            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3073                return self.sql(
3074                    exp.cast(
3075                        l / r,
3076                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3077                    )
3078                )
3079
3080        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3081
3082    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3084
3085    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3087
3088    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3090
3091    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3092        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3093
3094    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3096
3097    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3098        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3099
3100    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3102
3103    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3105
3106    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3108
3109    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3111
3112    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3114
3115    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3116        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3117            return self.sql(
3118                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3119            )
3120        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3121
3122    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3124
3125    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3126        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3127
3128    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3129        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3130
3131    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3132        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3133
3134    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3135        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3136
3137    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3138        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3139
3140    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3141        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3142
3143    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3144        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3145
3146    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3147        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3148
3149    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3150        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3151
3152    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3153        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3154
3155    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3157
3158    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3159        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3160
3161    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3162        this = expression.this
3163        expr = expression.expression
3164
3165        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3166            this, expr = expr, this
3167        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3168            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3169                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3170
3171            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3172
3173        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3174
3175    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3176        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3177        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3179        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3180        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3181
3182    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3183        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3185
3186    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3187        args = []
3188
3189        for key in expression.arg_types:
3190            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3191
3192            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3193                for value in arg_value:
3194                    args.append(value)
3195            elif arg_value is not None:
3196                args.append(arg_value)
3197
3198        if self.normalize_functions:
3199            name = expression.sql_name()
3200        else:
3201            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3202
3203        return self.func(name, *args)
3204
3205    def func(
3206        self,
3207        name: str,
3208        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3209        prefix: str = "(",
3210        suffix: str = ")",
3211    ) -> str:
3212        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3213
3214    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3215        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3216        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3217            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3218        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3219
3220    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3221        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3222
3223    def format_time(
3224        self,
3225        expression: exp.Expression,
3226        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3227        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3228    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3229        return format_time(
3230            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3231            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3232            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3233        )
3234
3235    def expressions(
3236        self,
3237        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3238        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3239        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3240        flat: bool = False,
3241        indent: bool = True,
3242        skip_first: bool = False,
3243        skip_last: bool = False,
3244        sep: str = ", ",
3245        prefix: str = "",
3246        dynamic: bool = False,
3247        new_line: bool = False,
3248    ) -> str:
3249        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3250
3251        if not expressions:
3252            return ""
3253
3254        if flat:
3255            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3256
3257        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3258
3259        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3260        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3261            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3262
3263        result_sqls = []
3264        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3265            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3266            if not sql:
3267                continue
3268
3269            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3270
3271            if self.pretty:
3272                if self.leading_comma:
3273                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3274                else:
3275                    result_sqls.append(
3276                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3277                    )
3278            else:
3279                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3280
3281        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3282            if new_line:
3283                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3284                result_sqls.append("")
3285            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3286        else:
3287            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3288        return (
3289            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3290            if indent
3291            else result_sql
3292        )
3293
3294    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3295        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3296        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3297        if flat:
3298            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3299        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3300
3301    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3302        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3303        if not property_name:
3304            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3305        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3306
3307    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3308        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3309
3310    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3311        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3312
3313    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3315        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3316        expressions = (
3317            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3318        )
3319        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3320
3321    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3323        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3324        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3325
3326    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3327        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3328
3329    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3330        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3331        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3332        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3333        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3334
3335        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3336        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3337            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3338            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3339                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3340        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3341            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3342                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3343            else:
3344                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3345        else:
3346            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3347        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3348
3349    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3350        table = expression.this
3351        table_alias = ""
3352
3353        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3354        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3355            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3356            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3357
3358        this = self.sql(table)
3359        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3360        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3361        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3362
3363        return self.prepend_ctes(
3364            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3365        )
3366
3367    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3368        if expression.args.get("format"):
3369            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3370
3371        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3372
3373    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3374        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3375            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3376            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3377
3378        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3379        if not fmt:
3380            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3381            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3382
3383        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3384
3385    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3387        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3388        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3389        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3390        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3391
3392    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3394        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3395        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3396        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3397
3398    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3399        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3400
3401    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3402        return ""
3403
3404    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3405        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3406        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3407        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3408        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3409        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3410
3411    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3413        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3414
3415        if having:
3416            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3417
3418        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3419
3420    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3421        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3422        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3423        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3424        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3425        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3426        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3427        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3428        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3429        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3430        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3431        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3432        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3433        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3434
3435    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3436        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3437        if key_block_size:
3438            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3439
3440        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3441        if using:
3442            return f"USING {using}"
3443
3444        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3445        if parser:
3446            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3447
3448        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3449        if comment:
3450            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3451
3452        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3453        if visible is not None:
3454            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3455
3456        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3457        if engine_attr:
3458            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3459
3460        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3461        if secondary_engine_attr:
3462            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3463
3464        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3465        return ""
3466
3467    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3468        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3469        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3470
3471    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3472        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3473        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3475        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3476        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3477        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3479        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3480        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3481        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3482        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3483
3484    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3485        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3486            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3487
3488        case = exp.Case().when(
3489            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3490            expression.args["true"],
3491            copy=False,
3492        )
3493        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3494        if else_cond:
3495            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3496
3497        return self.sql(case)
3498
3499    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3501        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3502        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3503        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3504        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3505        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3506
3507    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3509
3510    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3511        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3512
3513    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3514        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3515        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3516        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3517        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3518        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3519        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3520
3521    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3523        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3524        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3525
3526    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3528        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3529        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3530
3531    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3532        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3533
3534    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3535        arg = expression.this
3536        if not arg.type:
3537            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3538
3539            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3540
3541        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3542            return self.sql(arg)
3543
3544        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3545        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3546
3547    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3548        this = expression.this
3549        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3550            return self.sql(this)
3551
3552        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3553
3554    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3555        this = expression.this
3556        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3557            return self.sql(this)
3558
3559        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3560
3561    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3562        this = expression.this
3563        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3564
3565        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3566            return self.sql(
3567                exp.cast(
3568                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3569                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3570                )
3571            )
3572
3573        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3574            return self.sql(this)
3575
3576        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3577
3578    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3579        return self.sql(
3580            exp.func(
3581                "DATEDIFF",
3582                expression.this,
3583                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3584                "day",
3585            )
3586        )
3587
3588    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3589        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3590            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3591
3592        unit = expression.text("unit")
3593        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3594            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3595
3596        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3597
3598    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3599        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3600
3601        return self.func(
3602            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3603        )
3604
3605    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3606        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3607            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3608            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3609            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3610            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3611
3612        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3613
3614        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3615        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3616            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3617
3618        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3619
3620    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3621        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3622        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3623
3624    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3625        expression.set(
3626            "expressions",
3627            [
3628                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3629                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3630                else e
3631                for e in expression.expressions
3632            ],
3633        )
3634
3635        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3636
3637    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3638        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3639        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3640
3641        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3642
3643    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3644        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3645        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3646
3647        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3648
3649        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3650        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3651
3652        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3653        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3654
3655        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3656        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3657
3658        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3659        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3660
3661        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3662
3663    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3664    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3665    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3666        to = expression.this
3667        value = expression.expression
3668        style = expression.args.get("style")
3669        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3670        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3671
3672        if not to or not value:
3673            return ""
3674
3675        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3676        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3677            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3678
3679        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3680        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3681
3682        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3683        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3684            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3685
3686            style_value = style.name
3687            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3688            if not converted_style:
3689                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3690
3691            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3692
3693            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3694                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3695            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3696                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3697            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3698                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3699            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3700                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3701
3702        if not transformed:
3703            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3704
3705        return self.sql(transformed)
3706
3707    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3708        this = expression.this
3709        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3710            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3711            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3712
3713        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3714            return f".{this}"
3715
3716        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3717        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3718
3719    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3720        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3721        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3722
3723    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3724        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3725            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3726
3727            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3728
3729        return expression
3730
3731    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3732        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3733            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3734            mods = sorted(
3735                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3736                key=lambda x: 0
3737                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3738                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3739            )
3740
3741            if mods:
3742                mod = mods[0]
3743                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3744                this.meta["inline"] = True
3745                mod.this.replace(this)
3746                return self.sql(expression.this)
3747
3748            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3749
3750            if agg_func:
3751                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3752
3753        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3754
3755    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3756        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3757        if self.pretty:
3758            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3759        return string
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  81        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  82        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  84        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  86        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  94        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  95        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  96        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  98        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  99        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 100        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 101        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 105        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 106            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 107        ),
 108        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 128        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 130        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 131        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 132        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 134        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 135        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 136        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 137        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 138        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 140        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 142        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 143        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 144        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 145        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 146        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 147        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 149        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 151    }
 152
 153    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 154    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 155    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 156
 157    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 158    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 159    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 160
 161    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 162    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # Always do union distinct or union all
 165    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 166
 167    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 168    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 169
 170    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 171    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 172
 173    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 174    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 175
 176    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 177    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 178
 179    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 180    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 183    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 184
 185    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 186    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 187
 188    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 189    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 190
 191    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 192    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 193
 194    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 195    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 196
 197    # Whether join hints should be generated
 198    JOIN_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether table hints should be generated
 201    TABLE_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # Whether query hints should be generated
 204    QUERY_HINTS = True
 205
 206    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 207    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 208
 209    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 210    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 211
 212    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 213    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 214
 215    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 216    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 217
 218    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 219    RETURNING_END = True
 220
 221    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 222    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 223
 224    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 225    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 226
 227    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 228    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 229
 230    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 231    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 232
 233    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 234    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 235
 236    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 237    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 238    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 239    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 240
 241    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 242    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 243
 244    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 245    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 246
 247    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 248    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 249
 250    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 251    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 252
 253    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 254    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 255
 256    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 257    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 258
 259    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 260    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 261
 262    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 263    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 264
 265    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 266    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 267
 268    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 269    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 270
 271    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 273
 274    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 275    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 276
 277    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 278    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 279
 280    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 281    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 282
 283    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 284    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 285
 286    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 287    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 288
 289    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 290    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 291
 292    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 293    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 294
 295    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 296    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 297
 298    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 299    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 300
 301    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 302    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 303
 304    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 305    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 306
 307    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 308    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 309
 310    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 311    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 314    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 315
 316    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 317    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 318    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 319
 320    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 321    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 322
 323    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 325
 326    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 327    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 328
 329    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 330    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 331
 332    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 333    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 334
 335    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 336    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 337
 338    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 339    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 340    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 341    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 342
 343    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 344        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 346        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 347        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 348        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 349        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 350        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 351        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 352        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 353        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 354    }
 355
 356    STAR_MAPPING = {
 357        "except": "EXCEPT",
 358        "replace": "REPLACE",
 359    }
 360
 361    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 362        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 363        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 364        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 365        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 366        "DAYS": "DAY",
 367        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 368        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 369        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 370        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 371    }
 372
 373    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 374        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 375        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 376        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 377        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 378        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 379            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 380            if e.args.get("windows")
 381            else ""
 382        ),
 383    }
 384
 385    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 386
 387    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 388
 389    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 390    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 391
 392    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 393        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 394        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 398        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 400        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 404        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 405        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 406        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 413        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 414        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 415        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 416        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 417        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 418        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 420        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 423        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 428        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 429        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 430        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 431        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 432        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 434        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 437        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 440        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 451        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 453        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 454        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 457        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 459        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 461        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 464        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 466        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 467        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 468        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469    }
 470
 471    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 472    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 473
 474    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 475    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 476        exp.Create,
 477        exp.Delete,
 478        exp.Drop,
 479        exp.From,
 480        exp.Insert,
 481        exp.Join,
 482        exp.Select,
 483        exp.Union,
 484        exp.Update,
 485        exp.Where,
 486        exp.With,
 487    )
 488
 489    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 490    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 491        exp.Binary,
 492        exp.Union,
 493    )
 494
 495    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 496    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 497        exp.Column,
 498        exp.Literal,
 499        exp.Neg,
 500        exp.Paren,
 501    )
 502
 503    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 504        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 505        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 506        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 507        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 508    }
 509
 510    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 511    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 512
 513    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 514
 515    __slots__ = (
 516        "pretty",
 517        "identify",
 518        "normalize",
 519        "pad",
 520        "_indent",
 521        "normalize_functions",
 522        "unsupported_level",
 523        "max_unsupported",
 524        "leading_comma",
 525        "max_text_width",
 526        "comments",
 527        "dialect",
 528        "unsupported_messages",
 529        "_escaped_quote_end",
 530        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 531    )
 532
 533    def __init__(
 534        self,
 535        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 536        identify: str | bool = False,
 537        normalize: bool = False,
 538        pad: int = 2,
 539        indent: int = 2,
 540        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 541        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 542        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 543        leading_comma: bool = False,
 544        max_text_width: int = 80,
 545        comments: bool = True,
 546        dialect: DialectType = None,
 547    ):
 548        import sqlglot
 549        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 550
 551        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 552        self.identify = identify
 553        self.normalize = normalize
 554        self.pad = pad
 555        self._indent = indent
 556        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 557        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 558        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 559        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 560        self.comments = comments
 561        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 562
 563        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 564        self.normalize_functions = (
 565            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 566        )
 567
 568        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 569        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 570            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 571        )
 572        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 573            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 574        )
 575
 576    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 577        """
 578        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 579
 580        Args:
 581            expression: The syntax tree.
 582            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 583                it is safer to copy.
 584
 585        Returns:
 586            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 587        """
 588        if copy:
 589            expression = expression.copy()
 590
 591        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 592
 593        self.unsupported_messages = []
 594        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 595
 596        if self.pretty:
 597            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 598
 599        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 600            return sql
 601
 602        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 603            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 604                logger.warning(msg)
 605        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 606            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 607
 608        return sql
 609
 610    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 611        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 612        if (
 613            not expression.parent
 614            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 615            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 616        ):
 617            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 618
 619            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 620
 621        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 622            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 623
 624            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 625
 626        return expression
 627
 628    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 629        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 630            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 631        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 632
 633    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 634        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 635
 636    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 637        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 638
 639    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 640        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 641        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 642        return comment
 643
 644    def maybe_comment(
 645        self,
 646        sql: str,
 647        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 648        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 649        separated: bool = False,
 650    ) -> str:
 651        comments = (
 652            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 653            if self.comments
 654            else None
 655        )
 656
 657        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 658            return sql
 659
 660        comments_sql = " ".join(
 661            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 662        )
 663
 664        if not comments_sql:
 665            return sql
 666
 667        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 668
 669        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 670            return (
 671                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 672                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 673                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 674            )
 675
 676        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 677
 678    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 679        this_sql = self.indent(
 680            (
 681                self.sql(expression)
 682                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 683                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 684            ),
 685            level=1,
 686            pad=0,
 687        )
 688        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 689
 690    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 691        original = self.identify
 692        self.identify = False
 693        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 694        self.identify = original
 695        return result
 696
 697    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 698        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 699            return name.upper()
 700        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 701            return name.lower()
 702        return name
 703
 704    def indent(
 705        self,
 706        sql: str,
 707        level: int = 0,
 708        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 709        skip_first: bool = False,
 710        skip_last: bool = False,
 711    ) -> str:
 712        if not self.pretty:
 713            return sql
 714
 715        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 716        lines = sql.split("\n")
 717
 718        return "\n".join(
 719            (
 720                line
 721                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 722                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 723            )
 724            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 725        )
 726
 727    def sql(
 728        self,
 729        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 730        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 731        comment: bool = True,
 732    ) -> str:
 733        if not expression:
 734            return ""
 735
 736        if isinstance(expression, str):
 737            return expression
 738
 739        if key:
 740            value = expression.args.get(key)
 741            if value:
 742                return self.sql(value)
 743            return ""
 744
 745        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 746
 747        if callable(transform):
 748            sql = transform(self, expression)
 749        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 750            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 751
 752            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 753                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 754            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 755                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 756            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 757                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 758            else:
 759                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 760        else:
 761            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 762
 763        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 764
 765    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 766        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 767        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 768        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 769
 770    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 771        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 772        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 773        options = expression.args.get("options")
 774        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 775        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 776        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 777        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 778        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 779
 780    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 781        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 782            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 783        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 784        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 785
 786    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 787        return ".".join(
 788            self.sql(part)
 789            for part in (
 790                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 791                expression.args.get("db"),
 792                expression.args.get("table"),
 793                expression.args.get("this"),
 794            )
 795            if part
 796        )
 797
 798    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 799        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 800
 801        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 802            join_mark = ""
 803            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 804
 805        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 806
 807    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 809        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 810        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 811        return f"{position}{this}"
 812
 813    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 814        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 815        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 816        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 817        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 818        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 819        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 820        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 821        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 822
 823        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 824            kind = ""
 825
 826        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 827
 828    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 830        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 831        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 832
 833    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 835        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 836            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 837        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 838            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 839        else:
 840            persisted = ""
 841        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 842
 843    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 844        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 845
 846    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 847        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 848            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 849        else:
 850            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 851
 852        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 853
 854    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 855        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 856    ) -> str:
 857        this = ""
 858        if expression.this is not None:
 859            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 860            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 861
 862        start = expression.args.get("start")
 863        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 864        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 865        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 866        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 867        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 868        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 869        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 870        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 871        cycle_sql = ""
 872
 873        if cycle is not None:
 874            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 875            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 876
 877        sequence_opts = ""
 878        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 879            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 880            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 881
 882        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 883        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 884
 885        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 886
 887    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 888        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 889    ) -> str:
 890        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 891        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 892        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 893
 894    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 895        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 896    ) -> str:
 897        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 898
 899    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 900        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 901
 902    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 903        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 904
 905    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 906        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 907        if desc is not None:
 908            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 909        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 910
 911    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 913        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 914        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 915        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 916        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 917        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 918        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 919
 920    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 921        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 922
 923    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 925        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 926        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 927
 928        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 929
 930        properties_sql = ""
 931        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 932            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 933        ):
 934            properties_sql = self.sql(
 935                exp.Properties(
 936                    expressions=[
 937                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 938                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 939                    ]
 940                )
 941            )
 942
 943        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 944        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 945
 946        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 947        if expression_sql:
 948            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 949
 950            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 951                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 952                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 953                        exp.Properties(
 954                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 955                        ),
 956                        wrapped=False,
 957                    )
 958                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 959                else:
 960                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 961
 962        postindex_props_sql = ""
 963        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 964            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 965                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 966                wrapped=False,
 967                prefix=" ",
 968            )
 969
 970        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 971        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 972        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 973
 974        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 975        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 976
 977        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 978        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 979            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 980                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 981                sep=" ",
 982                prefix=" ",
 983                wrapped=False,
 984            )
 985
 986        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 987
 988        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 989        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 990            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 991                exp.Properties(
 992                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 993                ),
 994                sep=" ",
 995                prefix=" ",
 996                wrapped=False,
 997            )
 998
 999        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1000        no_schema_binding = (
1001            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1002        )
1003
1004        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1005        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1006
1007        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1008        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1009
1010    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1011        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1012        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1013        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1014        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1015        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1016        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1017        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1018        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1019        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1020        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1021
1022        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1023        if cache is None:
1024            cache_str = ""
1025        elif cache is True:
1026            cache_str = " CACHE"
1027        else:
1028            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1029
1030        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1031        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1032
1033        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1034
1035    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1037        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1038        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1039        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1040
1041    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1042        style = expression.args.get("style")
1043        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1044        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1045
1046    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1047        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1048        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1049
1050    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1051        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1052        if with_:
1053            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1054        return sql
1055
1056    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1057        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1058        recursive = (
1059            "RECURSIVE "
1060            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1061            else ""
1062        )
1063
1064        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1065
1066    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1067        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1068
1069        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1070        if materialized is False:
1071            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1072        elif materialized:
1073            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1074
1075        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1076
1077    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1078        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1079        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1080        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1081
1082        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1083            columns = ""
1084            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1085
1086        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1087            alias = "_t"
1088
1089        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1090
1091    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1093        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1094            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1095        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1096
1097    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1099        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1100            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1101        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1102
1103    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1105        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1106            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1107        return this
1108
1109    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1111        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1112
1113        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1114            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1115            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1116
1117        if escape:
1118            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1119        else:
1120            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1121
1122        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1123        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1124
1125    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1126        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1127        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1128
1129    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1131        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1132        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1133        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1134
1135    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1136        type_value = expression.this
1137
1138        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1139            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1140        else:
1141            type_sql = (
1142                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1143                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1144                else type_value
1145            )
1146
1147        nested = ""
1148        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1149        values = ""
1150
1151        if interior:
1152            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1153                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1154                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1155                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1156                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1157                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1158            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1159                nested = f" {interior}"
1160            else:
1161                nested = f"({interior})"
1162
1163        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1164        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1165            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1166            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1167        ):
1168            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1169
1170        return type_sql
1171
1172    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1173        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1174        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1175        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1176        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1177
1178    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1180        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1181        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1182        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1183        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1184        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1185        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1186        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1187        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1188        if self.RETURNING_END:
1189            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1190        else:
1191            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1192        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1193
1194    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1196        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1197        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1198        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1199        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1200        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1201        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1202        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1203        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1204        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1205        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1206
1207    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1208        return self.set_operations(expression)
1209
1210    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1211        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1212
1213    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1214        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1215        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1216        count = expression.args.get("count")
1217        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1218        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1219            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1220        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1221        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1222
1223    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1224        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1225            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1226            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1227            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1228
1229        agg = expression.this
1230        agg_arg = agg.this
1231        cond = expression.expression.this
1232        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1233        return self.sql(agg)
1234
1235    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1236        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1237            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1238            return ""
1239
1240        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1241
1242    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1243        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1244        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1245        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1246        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1247        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1248        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1249        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1250        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1251        if include:
1252            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1253        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1254        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1255        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1256        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1257
1258        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1259
1260    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1261        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1262        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1263        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1264        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1265        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1266        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1267        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1268
1269        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1270
1271        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1272        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1273
1274    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1275        text = expression.name
1276        lower = text.lower()
1277        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1278        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1279        if (
1280            expression.quoted
1281            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1282            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1283            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1284        ):
1285            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1286        return text
1287
1288    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1289        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1290        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1291        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1292        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1293        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1294
1295    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1296        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1297        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1298
1299    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1300        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1301
1302    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1303        root_properties = []
1304        with_properties = []
1305
1306        for p in expression.expressions:
1307            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1308            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1309                with_properties.append(p)
1310            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1311                root_properties.append(p)
1312
1313        return self.root_properties(
1314            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1315        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1316
1317    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1318        if properties.expressions:
1319            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1320        return ""
1321
1322    def properties(
1323        self,
1324        properties: exp.Properties,
1325        prefix: str = "",
1326        sep: str = ", ",
1327        suffix: str = "",
1328        wrapped: bool = True,
1329    ) -> str:
1330        if properties.expressions:
1331            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1332            if expressions:
1333                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1334                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1335        return ""
1336
1337    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1338        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1339
1340    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1341        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1342        for p in properties.expressions:
1343            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1344            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1345                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1346            else:
1347                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1348
1349        return properties_locs
1350
1351    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1352        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1353            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1354        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1355
1356    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1357        property_cls = expression.__class__
1358        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1359            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1360
1361        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1362        if not property_name:
1363            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1364
1365        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1366
1367    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1368        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1369            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1370            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1371
1372            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1373            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1374                like = f"({like})"
1375
1376            return like
1377
1378        if expression.expressions:
1379            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1380
1381        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1382        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1383
1384    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1385        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1386        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1387        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1388
1389    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1390        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1391        local = expression.args.get("local")
1392        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1393        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1394        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1395        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1396        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1397
1398    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1399        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1400        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1401        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1402
1403    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1404        if expression.args.get("default"):
1405            property = "DEFAULT"
1406        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1407            property = "ON"
1408        else:
1409            property = "OFF"
1410        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1411
1412    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1413        if expression.args.get("no"):
1414            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1415        if expression.args.get("default"):
1416            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1417
1418        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1419        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1420
1421    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1422        default = expression.args.get("default")
1423        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1424        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1425        if default or minimum or maximum:
1426            if default:
1427                prop = "DEFAULT"
1428            elif minimum:
1429                prop = "MINIMUM"
1430            else:
1431                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1432            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1433        units = expression.args.get("units")
1434        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1435        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1436
1437    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1438        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1439        always = expression.args.get("always")
1440        default = expression.args.get("default")
1441        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1442        never = expression.args.get("never")
1443
1444        if autotemp is not None:
1445            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1446        elif always:
1447            prop = "ALWAYS"
1448        elif default:
1449            prop = "DEFAULT"
1450        elif manual:
1451            prop = "MANUAL"
1452        elif never:
1453            prop = "NEVER"
1454        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1455
1456    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1457        no = expression.args.get("no")
1458        no = " NO" if no else ""
1459        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1460        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1461        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1462        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1463        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1464
1465    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1466        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1467            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1468        if expression.this:
1469            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1471            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1472
1473        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1474        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1475        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1476
1477    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1479
1480        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1481        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1482            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1483        else:
1484            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1485
1486        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1487
1488    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1489        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1490        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1491        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1492        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1493        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1494        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1495        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1496
1497    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1498        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1499        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1500        statistics_sql = ""
1501        if statistics is not None:
1502            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1503        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1504
1505    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1506        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1507
1508        if expression.this:
1509            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1510            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1511
1512            if expression.expression:
1513                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1514                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1515
1516            sql = f"{sql})"
1517
1518        return f"{sql})"
1519
1520    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1521        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1522        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1523
1524        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1525            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1526        else:
1527            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1528
1529        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1530        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1531        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1532        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1533        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1534        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1535        if is_function:
1536            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1537        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1538
1539        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1540        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1541        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1542        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1543        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1544        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1545        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1546        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1547
1548        if self.RETURNING_END:
1549            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1550        else:
1551            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1552
1553        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1554        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1555
1556    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1557        return self.set_operations(expression)
1558
1559    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1560        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1561
1562    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1563        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1564
1565    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1566        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1567        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1569        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1570        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1571
1572    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1573        return expression.name
1574
1575    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1576        return expression.name
1577
1578    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1579        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1580
1581        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1582        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1583
1584        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1585        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1586        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1587
1588        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1589        if expressions:
1590            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1591            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1592
1593        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1594
1595    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1596        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1597
1598    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1599        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1600        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1601        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1602        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1603        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1604        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1605        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1606        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1607        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1608        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1609        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1610        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1611        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1612
1613    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1614        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1615
1616    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1617        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1618        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1619        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1620        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1621
1622    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1625        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1626        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1627
1628    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1629        return ".".join(
1630            self.sql(part)
1631            for part in (
1632                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1633                expression.args.get("db"),
1634                expression.args.get("this"),
1635            )
1636            if part is not None
1637        )
1638
1639    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1640        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1641        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1642        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1643        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1644        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1645        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1646        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1647        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1648        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1649        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1650        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1651        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1652        joins = self.indent(
1653            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1654        )
1655        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1656
1657        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1658        if file_format:
1659            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1660            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1661            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1662
1663        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1664        if ordinality:
1665            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1666            alias = ""
1667
1668        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1669        if when:
1670            table = f"{table} {when}"
1671
1672        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1673
1674    def tablesample_sql(
1675        self,
1676        expression: exp.TableSample,
1677        sep: str = " AS ",
1678        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1679    ) -> str:
1680        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1681            table = expression.this.copy()
1682            table.set("alias", None)
1683            this = self.sql(table)
1684            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1685        else:
1686            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1687            alias = ""
1688
1689        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1690        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1691        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1692        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1693        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1694        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1695        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1696        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1697        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1698
1699        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1700        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1701            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1702
1703        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1704        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1705            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1706
1707        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1708        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1709            expr = f"({expr})"
1710
1711        return (
1712            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1713        )
1714
1715    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1716        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1717
1718        if expression.this:
1719            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1720            if not expressions:
1721                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1722
1723            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1724            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1725            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1726            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1727            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1728
1729        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1730        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1731        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1732        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1733        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1734        if include_nulls is not None:
1735            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1736        else:
1737            nulls = ""
1738        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1739
1740    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1741        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1742        kind = expression.text("kind")
1743        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1744        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1745
1746    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1747        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1748
1749    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1751        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1752        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1753        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1754        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1755        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1756        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1757        if self.RETURNING_END:
1758            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1759        else:
1760            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1761        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1762        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1763
1764    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1765        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1766
1767        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1768        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1769            args = self.expressions(expression)
1770            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1771            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1772            values = (
1773                f"({values})"
1774                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1775                else values
1776            )
1777            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1778
1779        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1780        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1781        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1782
1783        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1784
1785        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1786            row = tup.expressions
1787
1788            if i == 0 and column_names:
1789                row = [
1790                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1791                ]
1792
1793            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1794
1795        if self.pretty:
1796            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1797            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1798            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1799            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1800            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1801
1802        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1803        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1804        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1805
1806    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1807        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1808
1809    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1810        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1811        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1812        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1813
1814    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1815        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1816
1817    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1818        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1819        if group_by_all is True:
1820            modifier = " ALL"
1821        elif group_by_all is False:
1822            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1823        else:
1824            modifier = ""
1825
1826        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1827
1828        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1829        grouping_sets = (
1830            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1831        )
1832
1833        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1834        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1835            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1836        else:
1837            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1838            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1839
1840        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1841        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1842            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1843        else:
1844            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1845            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1846
1847        groupings = csv(
1848            grouping_sets,
1849            cube_sql,
1850            rollup_sql,
1851            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1852            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1853        )
1854
1855        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1856            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1857
1858        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1859
1860    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1861        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1862        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1863
1864    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1865        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1866        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1867        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1868        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1869        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1870        return start + connect
1871
1872    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1873        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1874
1875    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1876        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1877            side = None
1878        else:
1879            side = expression.side
1880
1881        op_sql = " ".join(
1882            op
1883            for op in (
1884                expression.method,
1885                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1886                side,
1887                expression.kind,
1888                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1889            )
1890            if op
1891        )
1892        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1893        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1894        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1895        using = expression.args.get("using")
1896
1897        if not on_sql and using:
1898            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1899
1900        this = expression.this
1901        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1902
1903        if on_sql:
1904            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1905            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1906            if using:
1907                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1908            else:
1909                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1910        elif not op_sql:
1911            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1912                return f" {this_sql}"
1913
1914            return f", {this_sql}"
1915
1916        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1917        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1918
1919    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1920        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1921        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1922        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1923
1924    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1925        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1926
1927        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1928        if cross_apply is True:
1929            op = "INNER JOIN "
1930        elif cross_apply is False:
1931            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1932        else:
1933            op = ""
1934
1935        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1936
1937    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1939
1940        if expression.args.get("view"):
1941            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1942            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1943            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1944            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1945            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1946            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1947
1948        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1949        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1950        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1951
1952    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1954
1955        args = [
1956            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1957            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1958            if e
1959        ]
1960
1961        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1962        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1963        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1964        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1965
1966        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1967
1968    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1970        value = expression.expression
1971        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1972        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1973        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1974        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1975
1976    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1977        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1978        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1980        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1981        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1982        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1983        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1984        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1985
1986    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1987        expressions = (
1988            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1989        )
1990        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1991        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1992
1993    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1994        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1995
1996    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1997        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1998            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1999            return ""
2000
2001        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2002        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2003        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2004        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2005
2006        if wait is not None:
2007            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2008                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2009            else:
2010                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2011
2012        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2013
2014    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2015        text = expression.this or ""
2016        if expression.is_string:
2017            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2018        return text
2019
2020    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2021        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2022            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2023            text = "".join(
2024                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2025            )
2026
2027        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2028            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2029        )
2030
2031    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2032        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2033        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2034        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2035        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2036        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2037        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2038        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2039        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2040        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2041        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2042        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2043
2044    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2045        return "NULL"
2046
2047    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2048        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2049
2050    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2052        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2053        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2054        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2055        interpolated_values = [
2056            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2057            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2058        ]
2059        interpolate = (
2060            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2061        )
2062        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2063
2064    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2065        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2066        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2067        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2068        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2069        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2070        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2071        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2072
2073    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2074        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2075
2076    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2077        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2078
2079    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2080        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2081
2082    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2083        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2084        asc = not desc
2085
2086        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2087        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2088        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2089        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2090        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2091
2092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2093
2094        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2095        nulls_sort_change = ""
2096        if nulls_first and (
2097            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2098        ):
2099            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2100        elif (
2101            nulls_last
2102            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2103            and not nulls_are_last
2104        ):
2105            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2106
2107        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2108        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2109            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2110            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2111                self.unsupported(
2112                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2113                )
2114                nulls_sort_change = ""
2115            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2116                if expression.this.is_int:
2117                    self.unsupported(
2118                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2119                    )
2120                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2121                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2122                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2123                nulls_sort_change = ""
2124
2125        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2126        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2127
2128        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2129
2130    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2131        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2132        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2133
2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2135
2136        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2137
2138    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2139        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2140        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2141        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2142        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2143        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2144        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2145        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2146        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2147        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2148        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2149        definition_sqls = [
2150            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2151            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2152        ]
2153        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2154        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2155        body = "".join(
2156            (
2157                partition,
2158                order,
2159                measures,
2160                rows,
2161                after,
2162                pattern,
2163                define,
2164            )
2165        )
2166        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2167        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2168        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2169
2170    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2171        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2172
2173        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2174            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2175        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2176            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2177
2178        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2179        if options:
2180            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2181
2182        return csv(
2183            *sqls,
2184            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2185            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2186            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2187            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2188            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2189            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2190            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2191            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2192            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2193            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2194            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2195            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2196            options,
2197            sep="",
2198        )
2199
2200    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2201        return ""
2202
2203    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2204        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2205    ) -> t.List[str]:
2206        return [
2207            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2208            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2209        ]
2210
2211    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2212        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2213        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2214        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2215
2216    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2217        into = expression.args.get("into")
2218        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2219            into.pop()
2220
2221        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2222        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2223        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2224        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2225
2226        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2227        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2228            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2229            limit.pop()
2230        else:
2231            top = ""
2232
2233        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2234
2235        if kind:
2236            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2237                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2238            else:
2239                if kind == "STRUCT":
2240                    expressions = self.expressions(
2241                        sqls=[
2242                            self.sql(
2243                                exp.Struct(
2244                                    expressions=[
2245                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2246                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2247                                        else e
2248                                        for e in expression.expressions
2249                                    ]
2250                                )
2251                            )
2252                        ]
2253                    )
2254                kind = ""
2255
2256        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2257        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2258        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2259        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2260        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2261            expression,
2262            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2263            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2264            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2265        )
2266
2267        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2268
2269        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2270            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2271                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2272            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2273                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2274            else:
2275                table_kind = ""
2276            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2277
2278        return sql
2279
2280    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2282        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2283        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2284
2285    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2286        if expression.expressions:
2287            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2288        return ""
2289
2290    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2291        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2292        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2293        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2294        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2295        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2296
2297    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2300
2301    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2302        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2303        kind = expression.text("kind")
2304        if kind:
2305            kind = f"{kind}."
2306        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2307
2308    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2309        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2310
2311    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2312        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2313        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2314
2315        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2316        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2317
2318        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2319        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2320
2321    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2322        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2323        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2324
2325    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2326        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2327            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2328            order = expression.args.get("order")
2329
2330            if limit or order:
2331                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2332
2333                if limit:
2334                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2335                if order:
2336                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2337                return self.sql(select)
2338
2339        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2340        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2341
2342        while stack:
2343            node = stack.pop()
2344
2345            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2346                stack.append(node.expression)
2347                stack.append(
2348                    self.maybe_comment(
2349                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2350                        comments=node.comments,
2351                        separated=True,
2352                    )
2353                )
2354                stack.append(node.this)
2355            else:
2356                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2357
2358        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2359        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2360        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2361
2362    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2363        return self.set_operations(expression)
2364
2365    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2366        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2367        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2368        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2369        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2370
2371    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2372        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2373
2374        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2375        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2376
2377        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2378            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2379                alias.append("columns", offset)
2380
2381        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2382            columns = alias.columns
2383            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2384        else:
2385            alias = self.sql(alias)
2386
2387        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2388        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2389            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2390        else:
2391            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2392                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2393            elif offset:
2394                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2395            else:
2396                suffix = alias
2397
2398        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2399
2400    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2401        return ""
2402
2403    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2404        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2405        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2406
2407    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2408        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2409        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2410        order = expression.args.get("order")
2411        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2412        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2413        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2414        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2415
2416        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2417
2418        first = expression.args.get("first")
2419        if first is None:
2420            first = ""
2421        else:
2422            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2423
2424        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2425            return f"{this} {alias}"
2426
2427        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2428        return f"{this} ({args})"
2429
2430    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2431        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2432        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2433
2434    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2435        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2436        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2437        end = (
2438            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2439            or "CURRENT ROW"
2440        )
2441        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2442
2443    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2445        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2446        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2447
2448    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2450        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2451        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2452        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2453
2454    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2455        return apply_index_offset(
2456            expression.this,
2457            expression.expressions,
2458            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2459        )
2460
2461    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2462        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2463        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2464        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2465
2466    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2467        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2468
2469    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2470        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2471        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2472            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2473                this = self.wrap(this)
2474            return f"ANY{this}"
2475        return f"ANY {this}"
2476
2477    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2478        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2479
2480    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2481        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2482        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2483
2484        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2485            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2486            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2487
2488        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2489
2490        if default:
2491            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2492
2493        statements.append("END")
2494
2495        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2496            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2497
2498        return " ".join(statements)
2499
2500    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2502        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2503        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2504
2505    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2506        order = expression.args.get("order")
2507        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2508        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2509
2510    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2512        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2513        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2514
2515    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2516        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2517
2518        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2519            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2520        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2521            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2522        else:
2523            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2524
2525    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2526        args = expression.expressions
2527        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2528            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2529
2530        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2531            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2532
2533        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2534            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2535
2536        return args
2537
2538    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2539        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2540
2541        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2542        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2543            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2544
2545        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2546
2547    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2548        return self.func(
2549            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2550        )
2551
2552    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2553        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2554        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2555
2556    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2557        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2558        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2559        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2560        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2561        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2562        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2563        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2564        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2565
2566    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2567        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2568        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2569        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2570        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2571
2572    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2573        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2574
2575    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2576        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2577        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2578        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2579
2580    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2581        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2582
2583    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2584        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2585        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2586
2587    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2588        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2589            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2590            if not callable(transform):
2591                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2592                return ""
2593
2594            return transform(self, expression)
2595
2596        if isinstance(expression, int):
2597            return str(expression)
2598
2599        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2600            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2601            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2602        else:
2603            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2604            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2605
2606        return escaped
2607
2608    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2609        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2610
2611    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2612        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2613        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2614
2615        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2616        if unique_keys is not None:
2617            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2618        else:
2619            unique_keys = ""
2620
2621        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2622        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2623        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2624        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2625
2626        return self.func(
2627            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2628            *expression.expressions,
2629            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2630        )
2631
2632    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2633        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2634
2635    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2636        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2637        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2638        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2639        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2640        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2641        return self.func(
2642            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2643        )
2644
2645    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2647        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2648        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2649        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2650        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2651        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2652        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2653        return self.func(
2654            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2655            this,
2656            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2657        )
2658
2659    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2660        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2661        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2662        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2663
2664        if nested_schema:
2665            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2666
2667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2668        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2669        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2670        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2671
2672    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2673        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2674
2675    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2677        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2678        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2679        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2680        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2681        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2682        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2683        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2684        return self.func(
2685            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2686        )
2687
2688    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2690        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2691        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2692        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2693        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2694        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2695
2696    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2698        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2699        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2700        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2701        with_ = (
2702            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2703            if expressions
2704            else ""
2705        )
2706        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2707
2708    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2709        query = expression.args.get("query")
2710        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2711        field = expression.args.get("field")
2712        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2713
2714        if query:
2715            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2716        elif unnest:
2717            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2718        elif field:
2719            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2720        else:
2721            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2722
2723        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2724
2725    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2726        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2727
2728    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2729        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2730        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2731            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2732        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2733
2734        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2735            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2736            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2737
2738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2739        if this:
2740            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2741            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2742
2743        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2744
2745    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2746        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2747
2748    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2751        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2752        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2753        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2754        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2755
2756    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2757        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2758
2759    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2760        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2761        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2762
2763    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2764        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2765        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2766        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2767        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2768
2769    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2770        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2771
2772    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2773        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2774        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2775        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2776
2777    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2778        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2779        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2780
2781        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2782            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2783        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2784            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2785
2786        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2787
2788    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2789        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2790
2791    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2793        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2794        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2795
2796    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2798        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2799        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2800
2801    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2803        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2804        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2805
2806    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2807        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2808
2809    def and_sql(
2810        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2811    ) -> str:
2812        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2813
2814    def or_sql(
2815        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2816    ) -> str:
2817        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2818
2819    def xor_sql(
2820        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2821    ) -> str:
2822        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2823
2824    def connector_sql(
2825        self,
2826        expression: exp.Connector,
2827        op: str,
2828        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2829    ) -> str:
2830        if stack is not None:
2831            if expression.expressions:
2832                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2833            else:
2834                stack.append(expression.right)
2835                if expression.comments:
2836                    for comment in expression.comments:
2837                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2838                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2839            return op
2840
2841        stack = [expression]
2842        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2843        ops = set()
2844
2845        while stack:
2846            node = stack.pop()
2847            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2848                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2849            else:
2850                sql = self.sql(node)
2851                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2852                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2853                else:
2854                    sqls.append(sql)
2855
2856        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2857        return sep.join(sqls)
2858
2859    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2860        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2861
2862    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2863        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2864
2865    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2866        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2867
2868    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2869        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2870
2871    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2872        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2873
2874    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2875        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2876
2877    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2878        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2879        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2880        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2881        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2882        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2883        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2884        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2885
2886    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2887        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2888        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2889
2890    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2891        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2892
2893    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2894        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2895            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2896        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2897
2898    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2899        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2900
2901    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2903        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2904        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2905        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2906        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2907        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2908
2909    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2911        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2912        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2913        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2914        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2915        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2916        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2917        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2918        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2919
2920    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2921        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2922        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2923        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2924        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2925
2926        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2927            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2928
2929        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2930
2931    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2932        return "BEGIN"
2933
2934    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2935        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2936        if chain is not None:
2937            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2938
2939        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2940
2941    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2942        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2943        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2944        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2945
2946    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2948
2949        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2950        if dtype:
2951            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2952            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2953            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2954            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2955            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2956
2957        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2958        if default:
2959            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2960
2961        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2962        if comment:
2963            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2964
2965        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2966            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2967
2968        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2969
2970    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2971        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2972            # Remove db from tables
2973            expression = expression.transform(
2974                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2975            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2977        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2978
2979    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2980        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2981        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2982        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2983        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2984
2985    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2986        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2987
2988        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2989            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2990        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2991            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2992        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2993            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2994        else:
2995            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2996
2997        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2998        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2999        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3000        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3001        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
3002
3003    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3004        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3005            return self.expressions(
3006                expression,
3007                key="actions",
3008                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3009            )
3010        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3011
3012    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3013        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3014        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3015        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3016
3017    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3018        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3019
3020    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3021        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3022
3023        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3024            case = exp.case()
3025            for arg in expression.expressions:
3026                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3027            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3028
3029        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3030
3031        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3032        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3033        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3034
3035    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3036        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3037
3038    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3039        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3040
3041    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3042        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3043        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3044        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3045        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3046
3047    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3048        return self.sql(
3049            exp.Cast(
3050                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3051                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3052            )
3053        )
3054
3055    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3056        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3057            return self.func(
3058                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3059            )
3060        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3061
3062    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3063        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3064
3065        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3066            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3067
3068        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3069            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3070                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3071
3072        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3073            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3074                return self.sql(
3075                    exp.cast(
3076                        l / r,
3077                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3078                    )
3079                )
3080
3081        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3082
3083    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3084        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3085
3086    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3087        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3088
3089    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3090        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3091
3092    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3093        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3094
3095    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3097
3098    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3099        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3100
3101    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3103
3104    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3106
3107    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3109
3110    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3111        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3112
3113    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3114        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3115
3116    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3117        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3118            return self.sql(
3119                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3120            )
3121        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3122
3123    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3124        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3125
3126    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3127        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3128
3129    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3130        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3131
3132    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3133        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3134
3135    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3136        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3137
3138    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3139        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3140
3141    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3142        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3143
3144    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3145        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3146
3147    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3148        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3149
3150    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3151        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3152
3153    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3154        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3155
3156    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3157        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3158
3159    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3160        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3161
3162    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3163        this = expression.this
3164        expr = expression.expression
3165
3166        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3167            this, expr = expr, this
3168        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3169            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3170                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3171
3172            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3173
3174        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3175
3176    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3177        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3178        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3180        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3181        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3182
3183    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3184        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3185        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3186
3187    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3188        args = []
3189
3190        for key in expression.arg_types:
3191            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3192
3193            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3194                for value in arg_value:
3195                    args.append(value)
3196            elif arg_value is not None:
3197                args.append(arg_value)
3198
3199        if self.normalize_functions:
3200            name = expression.sql_name()
3201        else:
3202            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3203
3204        return self.func(name, *args)
3205
3206    def func(
3207        self,
3208        name: str,
3209        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3210        prefix: str = "(",
3211        suffix: str = ")",
3212    ) -> str:
3213        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3214
3215    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3216        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3217        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3218            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3219        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3220
3221    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3222        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3223
3224    def format_time(
3225        self,
3226        expression: exp.Expression,
3227        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3228        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3229    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3230        return format_time(
3231            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3232            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3233            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3234        )
3235
3236    def expressions(
3237        self,
3238        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3239        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3240        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3241        flat: bool = False,
3242        indent: bool = True,
3243        skip_first: bool = False,
3244        skip_last: bool = False,
3245        sep: str = ", ",
3246        prefix: str = "",
3247        dynamic: bool = False,
3248        new_line: bool = False,
3249    ) -> str:
3250        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3251
3252        if not expressions:
3253            return ""
3254
3255        if flat:
3256            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3257
3258        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3259
3260        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3261        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3262            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3263
3264        result_sqls = []
3265        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3266            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3267            if not sql:
3268                continue
3269
3270            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3271
3272            if self.pretty:
3273                if self.leading_comma:
3274                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3275                else:
3276                    result_sqls.append(
3277                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3278                    )
3279            else:
3280                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3281
3282        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3283            if new_line:
3284                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3285                result_sqls.append("")
3286            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3287        else:
3288            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3289        return (
3290            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3291            if indent
3292            else result_sql
3293        )
3294
3295    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3296        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3297        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3298        if flat:
3299            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3300        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3301
3302    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3303        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3304        if not property_name:
3305            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3306        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3307
3308    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3309        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3310
3311    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3312        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3313
3314    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3316        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3317        expressions = (
3318            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3319        )
3320        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3321
3322    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3324        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3325        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3326
3327    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3328        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3329
3330    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3331        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3332        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3333        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3334        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3335
3336        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3337        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3338            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3339            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3340                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3341        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3342            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3343                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3344            else:
3345                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3346        else:
3347            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3348        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3349
3350    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3351        table = expression.this
3352        table_alias = ""
3353
3354        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3355        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3356            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3357            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3358
3359        this = self.sql(table)
3360        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3361        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3362        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3363
3364        return self.prepend_ctes(
3365            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3366        )
3367
3368    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3369        if expression.args.get("format"):
3370            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3371
3372        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3373
3374    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3375        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3376            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3377            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3378
3379        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3380        if not fmt:
3381            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3382            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3383
3384        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3385
3386    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3388        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3389        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3390        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3391        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3392
3393    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3395        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3396        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3397        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3398
3399    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3400        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3401
3402    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3403        return ""
3404
3405    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3406        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3407        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3408        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3409        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3410        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3411
3412    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3414        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3415
3416        if having:
3417            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3418
3419        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3420
3421    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3422        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3423        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3424        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3425        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3426        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3427        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3428        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3429        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3430        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3431        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3432        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3433        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3434        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3435
3436    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3437        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3438        if key_block_size:
3439            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3440
3441        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3442        if using:
3443            return f"USING {using}"
3444
3445        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3446        if parser:
3447            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3448
3449        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3450        if comment:
3451            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3452
3453        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3454        if visible is not None:
3455            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3456
3457        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3458        if engine_attr:
3459            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3460
3461        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3462        if secondary_engine_attr:
3463            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3464
3465        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3466        return ""
3467
3468    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3469        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3470        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3471
3472    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3473        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3474        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3475        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3476        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3477        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3478        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3479        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3480        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3481        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3482        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3483        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3484
3485    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3486        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3487            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3488
3489        case = exp.Case().when(
3490            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3491            expression.args["true"],
3492            copy=False,
3493        )
3494        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3495        if else_cond:
3496            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3497
3498        return self.sql(case)
3499
3500    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3502        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3503        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3504        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3505        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3506        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3507
3508    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3509        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3510
3511    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3512        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3513
3514    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3515        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3516        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3517        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3518        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3519        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3520        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3521
3522    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3524        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3525        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3526
3527    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3529        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3530        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3531
3532    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3533        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3534
3535    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3536        arg = expression.this
3537        if not arg.type:
3538            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3539
3540            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3541
3542        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3543            return self.sql(arg)
3544
3545        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3546        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3547
3548    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3549        this = expression.this
3550        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3551            return self.sql(this)
3552
3553        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3554
3555    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3556        this = expression.this
3557        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3558            return self.sql(this)
3559
3560        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3561
3562    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3563        this = expression.this
3564        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3565
3566        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3567            return self.sql(
3568                exp.cast(
3569                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3570                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3571                )
3572            )
3573
3574        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3575            return self.sql(this)
3576
3577        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3578
3579    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3580        return self.sql(
3581            exp.func(
3582                "DATEDIFF",
3583                expression.this,
3584                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3585                "day",
3586            )
3587        )
3588
3589    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3590        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3591            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3592
3593        unit = expression.text("unit")
3594        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3595            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3596
3597        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3598
3599    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3600        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3601
3602        return self.func(
3603            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3604        )
3605
3606    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3607        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3608            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3609            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3610            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3611            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3612
3613        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3614
3615        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3616        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3617            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3618
3619        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3620
3621    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3622        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3623        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3624
3625    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3626        expression.set(
3627            "expressions",
3628            [
3629                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3630                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3631                else e
3632                for e in expression.expressions
3633            ],
3634        )
3635
3636        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3637
3638    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3639        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3640        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3641
3642        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3643
3644    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3645        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3646        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3647
3648        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3649
3650        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3651        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3652
3653        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3654        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3655
3656        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3657        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3658
3659        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3660        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3661
3662        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3663
3664    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3665    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3666    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3667        to = expression.this
3668        value = expression.expression
3669        style = expression.args.get("style")
3670        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3671        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3672
3673        if not to or not value:
3674            return ""
3675
3676        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3677        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3678            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3679
3680        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3681        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3682
3683        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3684        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3685            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3686
3687            style_value = style.name
3688            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3689            if not converted_style:
3690                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3691
3692            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3693
3694            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3695                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3696            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3697                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3698            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3699                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3700            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3701                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3702
3703        if not transformed:
3704            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3705
3706        return self.sql(transformed)
3707
3708    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3709        this = expression.this
3710        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3711            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3712            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3713
3714        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3715            return f".{this}"
3716
3717        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3718        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3719
3720    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3721        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3722        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3723
3724    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3725        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3726            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3727
3728            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3729
3730        return expression
3731
3732    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3733        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3734            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3735            mods = sorted(
3736                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3737                key=lambda x: 0
3738                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3739                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3740            )
3741
3742            if mods:
3743                mod = mods[0]
3744                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3745                this.meta["inline"] = True
3746                mod.this.replace(this)
3747                return self.sql(expression.this)
3748
3749            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3750
3751            if agg_func:
3752                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3753
3754        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3755
3756    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3757        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3758        if self.pretty:
3759            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3760        return string

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
533    def __init__(
534        self,
535        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
536        identify: str | bool = False,
537        normalize: bool = False,
538        pad: int = 2,
539        indent: int = 2,
540        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
541        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
542        max_unsupported: int = 3,
543        leading_comma: bool = False,
544        max_text_width: int = 80,
545        comments: bool = True,
546        dialect: DialectType = None,
547    ):
548        import sqlglot
549        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
550
551        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
552        self.identify = identify
553        self.normalize = normalize
554        self.pad = pad
555        self._indent = indent
556        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
557        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
558        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
559        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
560        self.comments = comments
561        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
562
563        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
564        self.normalize_functions = (
565            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
566        )
567
568        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
569        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
570            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
571        )
572        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
573            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
574        )
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
576    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
577        """
578        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
579
580        Args:
581            expression: The syntax tree.
582            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
583                it is safer to copy.
584
585        Returns:
586            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
587        """
588        if copy:
589            expression = expression.copy()
590
591        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
592
593        self.unsupported_messages = []
594        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
595
596        if self.pretty:
597            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
598
599        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
600            return sql
601
602        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
603            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
604                logger.warning(msg)
605        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
606            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
607
608        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
610    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
611        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
612        if (
613            not expression.parent
614            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
615            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
616        ):
617            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
618
619            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
620
621        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
622            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
623
624            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
625
626        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
628    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
629        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
630            raise UnsupportedError(message)
631        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
633    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
634        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
636    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
637        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
639    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
640        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
641        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
642        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
644    def maybe_comment(
645        self,
646        sql: str,
647        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
648        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
649        separated: bool = False,
650    ) -> str:
651        comments = (
652            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
653            if self.comments
654            else None
655        )
656
657        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
658            return sql
659
660        comments_sql = " ".join(
661            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
662        )
663
664        if not comments_sql:
665            return sql
666
667        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
668
669        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
670            return (
671                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
672                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
673                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
674            )
675
676        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
678    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
679        this_sql = self.indent(
680            (
681                self.sql(expression)
682                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
683                else self.sql(expression, "this")
684            ),
685            level=1,
686            pad=0,
687        )
688        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
690    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
691        original = self.identify
692        self.identify = False
693        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
694        self.identify = original
695        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
697    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
698        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
699            return name.upper()
700        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
701            return name.lower()
702        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
704    def indent(
705        self,
706        sql: str,
707        level: int = 0,
708        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
709        skip_first: bool = False,
710        skip_last: bool = False,
711    ) -> str:
712        if not self.pretty:
713            return sql
714
715        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
716        lines = sql.split("\n")
717
718        return "\n".join(
719            (
720                line
721                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
722                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
723            )
724            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
725        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
727    def sql(
728        self,
729        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
730        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
731        comment: bool = True,
732    ) -> str:
733        if not expression:
734            return ""
735
736        if isinstance(expression, str):
737            return expression
738
739        if key:
740            value = expression.args.get(key)
741            if value:
742                return self.sql(value)
743            return ""
744
745        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
746
747        if callable(transform):
748            sql = transform(self, expression)
749        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
750            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
751
752            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
753                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
754            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
755                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
756            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
757                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
758            else:
759                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
760        else:
761            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
762
763        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
765    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
766        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
767        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
768        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
770    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
771        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
772        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
773        options = expression.args.get("options")
774        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
775        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
776        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
777        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
778        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
780    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
781        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
782            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
783        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
784        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
786    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
787        return ".".join(
788            self.sql(part)
789            for part in (
790                expression.args.get("catalog"),
791                expression.args.get("db"),
792                expression.args.get("table"),
793                expression.args.get("this"),
794            )
795            if part
796        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
798    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
799        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
800
801        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
802            join_mark = ""
803            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
804
805        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
807    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
809        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
810        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
811        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
813    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
814        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
815        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
816        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
817        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
818        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
819        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
820        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
821        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
822
823        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
824            kind = ""
825
826        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
828    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
830        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
831        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
833    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
835        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
836            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
837        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
838            persisted = " PERSISTED"
839        else:
840            persisted = ""
841        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
843    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
844        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
846    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
847        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
848            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
849        else:
850            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
851
852        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
854    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
855        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
856    ) -> str:
857        this = ""
858        if expression.this is not None:
859            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
860            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
861
862        start = expression.args.get("start")
863        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
864        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
865        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
866        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
867        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
868        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
869        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
870        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
871        cycle_sql = ""
872
873        if cycle is not None:
874            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
875            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
876
877        sequence_opts = ""
878        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
879            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
880            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
881
882        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
883        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
884
885        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
887    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
888        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
889    ) -> str:
890        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
891        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
892        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
894    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
895        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
896    ) -> str:
897        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
899    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
900        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
902    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
903        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
905    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
906        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
907        if desc is not None:
908            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
909        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
911    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
913        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
914        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
915        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
916        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
917        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
918        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
920    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
921        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 923    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 925        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 926        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 927
 928        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 929
 930        properties_sql = ""
 931        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 932            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 933        ):
 934            properties_sql = self.sql(
 935                exp.Properties(
 936                    expressions=[
 937                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 938                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 939                    ]
 940                )
 941            )
 942
 943        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 944        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 945
 946        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 947        if expression_sql:
 948            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 949
 950            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 951                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 952                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 953                        exp.Properties(
 954                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 955                        ),
 956                        wrapped=False,
 957                    )
 958                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 959                else:
 960                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 961
 962        postindex_props_sql = ""
 963        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 964            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 965                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 966                wrapped=False,
 967                prefix=" ",
 968            )
 969
 970        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 971        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 972        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 973
 974        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 975        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 976
 977        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 978        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 979            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 980                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 981                sep=" ",
 982                prefix=" ",
 983                wrapped=False,
 984            )
 985
 986        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 987
 988        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 989        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 990            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 991                exp.Properties(
 992                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 993                ),
 994                sep=" ",
 995                prefix=" ",
 996                wrapped=False,
 997            )
 998
 999        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1000        no_schema_binding = (
1001            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1002        )
1003
1004        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1005        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1006
1007        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1008        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1010    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1011        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1012        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1013        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1014        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1015        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1016        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1017        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1018        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1019        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1020        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1021
1022        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1023        if cache is None:
1024            cache_str = ""
1025        elif cache is True:
1026            cache_str = " CACHE"
1027        else:
1028            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1029
1030        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1031        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1032
1033        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1035    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1037        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1038        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1039        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1041    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1042        style = expression.args.get("style")
1043        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1044        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1046    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1047        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1048        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1050    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1051        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1052        if with_:
1053            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1054        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1056    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1057        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1058        recursive = (
1059            "RECURSIVE "
1060            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1061            else ""
1062        )
1063
1064        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1066    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1067        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1068
1069        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1070        if materialized is False:
1071            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1072        elif materialized:
1073            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1074
1075        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1077    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1078        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1079        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1080        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1081
1082        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1083            columns = ""
1084            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1085
1086        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1087            alias = "_t"
1088
1089        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1091    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1093        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1094            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1095        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1097    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1099        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1100            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1101        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1103    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1105        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1106            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1107        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1109    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1111        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1112
1113        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1114            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1115            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1116
1117        if escape:
1118            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1119        else:
1120            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1121
1122        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1123        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1125    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1126        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1127        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1129    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1131        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1132        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1133        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1135    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1136        type_value = expression.this
1137
1138        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1139            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1140        else:
1141            type_sql = (
1142                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1143                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1144                else type_value
1145            )
1146
1147        nested = ""
1148        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1149        values = ""
1150
1151        if interior:
1152            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1153                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1154                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1155                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1156                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1157                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1158            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1159                nested = f" {interior}"
1160            else:
1161                nested = f"({interior})"
1162
1163        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1164        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1165            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1166            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1167        ):
1168            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1169
1170        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1172    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1173        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1174        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1175        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1176        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1178    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1180        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1181        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1182        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1183        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1184        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1185        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1186        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1187        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1188        if self.RETURNING_END:
1189            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1190        else:
1191            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1192        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1194    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1196        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1197        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1198        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1199        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1200        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1201        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1202        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1203        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1204        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1205        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1207    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1208        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1210    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1211        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1213    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1214        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1215        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1216        count = expression.args.get("count")
1217        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1218        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1219            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1220        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1221        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1223    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1224        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1225            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1226            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1227            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1228
1229        agg = expression.this
1230        agg_arg = agg.this
1231        cond = expression.expression.this
1232        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1233        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1235    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1236        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1237            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1238            return ""
1239
1240        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1242    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1243        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1244        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1245        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1246        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1247        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1248        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1249        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1250        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1251        if include:
1252            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1253        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1254        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1255        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1256        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1257
1258        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1260    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1261        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1262        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1263        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1264        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1265        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1266        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1267        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1268
1269        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1270
1271        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1272        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1274    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1275        text = expression.name
1276        lower = text.lower()
1277        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1278        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1279        if (
1280            expression.quoted
1281            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1282            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1283            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1284        ):
1285            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1286        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1288    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1289        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1290        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1291        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1292        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1293        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1295    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1296        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1297        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1299    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1300        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1302    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1303        root_properties = []
1304        with_properties = []
1305
1306        for p in expression.expressions:
1307            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1308            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1309                with_properties.append(p)
1310            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1311                root_properties.append(p)
1312
1313        return self.root_properties(
1314            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1315        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1317    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1318        if properties.expressions:
1319            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1320        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1322    def properties(
1323        self,
1324        properties: exp.Properties,
1325        prefix: str = "",
1326        sep: str = ", ",
1327        suffix: str = "",
1328        wrapped: bool = True,
1329    ) -> str:
1330        if properties.expressions:
1331            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1332            if expressions:
1333                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1334                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1335        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1337    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1338        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1340    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1341        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1342        for p in properties.expressions:
1343            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1344            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1345                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1346            else:
1347                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1348
1349        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1351    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1352        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1353            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1354        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1356    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1357        property_cls = expression.__class__
1358        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1359            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1360
1361        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1362        if not property_name:
1363            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1364
1365        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1367    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1368        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1369            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1370            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1371
1372            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1373            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1374                like = f"({like})"
1375
1376            return like
1377
1378        if expression.expressions:
1379            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1380
1381        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1382        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1384    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1385        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1386        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1387        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1389    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1390        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1391        local = expression.args.get("local")
1392        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1393        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1394        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1395        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1396        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1398    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1399        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1400        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1401        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1403    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1404        if expression.args.get("default"):
1405            property = "DEFAULT"
1406        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1407            property = "ON"
1408        else:
1409            property = "OFF"
1410        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1412    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1413        if expression.args.get("no"):
1414            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1415        if expression.args.get("default"):
1416            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1417
1418        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1419        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1421    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1422        default = expression.args.get("default")
1423        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1424        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1425        if default or minimum or maximum:
1426            if default:
1427                prop = "DEFAULT"
1428            elif minimum:
1429                prop = "MINIMUM"
1430            else:
1431                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1432            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1433        units = expression.args.get("units")
1434        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1435        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1437    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1438        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1439        always = expression.args.get("always")
1440        default = expression.args.get("default")
1441        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1442        never = expression.args.get("never")
1443
1444        if autotemp is not None:
1445            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1446        elif always:
1447            prop = "ALWAYS"
1448        elif default:
1449            prop = "DEFAULT"
1450        elif manual:
1451            prop = "MANUAL"
1452        elif never:
1453            prop = "NEVER"
1454        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1456    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1457        no = expression.args.get("no")
1458        no = " NO" if no else ""
1459        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1460        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1461        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1462        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1463        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1465    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1466        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1467            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1468        if expression.this:
1469            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1471            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1472
1473        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1474        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1475        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1477    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1479
1480        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1481        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1482            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1483        else:
1484            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1485
1486        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1488    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1489        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1490        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1491        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1492        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1493        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1494        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1495        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1497    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1498        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1499        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1500        statistics_sql = ""
1501        if statistics is not None:
1502            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1503        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1505    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1506        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1507
1508        if expression.this:
1509            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1510            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1511
1512            if expression.expression:
1513                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1514                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1515
1516            sql = f"{sql})"
1517
1518        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1520    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1521        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1522        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1523
1524        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1525            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1526        else:
1527            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1528
1529        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1530        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1531        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1532        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1533        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1534        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1535        if is_function:
1536            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1537        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1538
1539        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1540        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1541        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1542        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1543        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1544        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1545        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1546        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1547
1548        if self.RETURNING_END:
1549            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1550        else:
1551            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1552
1553        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1554        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1556    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1557        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1559    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1560        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1562    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1563        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1565    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1566        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1567        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1569        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1570        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1572    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1573        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1575    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1576        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1578    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1579        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1580
1581        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1582        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1583
1584        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1585        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1586        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1587
1588        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1589        if expressions:
1590            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1591            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1592
1593        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1595    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1596        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1598    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1599        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1600        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1601        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1602        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1603        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1604        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1605        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1606        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1607        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1608        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1609        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1610        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1611        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1613    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1614        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1616    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1617        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1618        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1619        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1620        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1622    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1625        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1626        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1628    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1629        return ".".join(
1630            self.sql(part)
1631            for part in (
1632                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1633                expression.args.get("db"),
1634                expression.args.get("this"),
1635            )
1636            if part is not None
1637        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1639    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1640        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1641        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1642        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1643        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1644        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1645        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1646        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1647        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1648        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1649        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1650        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1651        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1652        joins = self.indent(
1653            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1654        )
1655        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1656
1657        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1658        if file_format:
1659            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1660            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1661            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1662
1663        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1664        if ordinality:
1665            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1666            alias = ""
1667
1668        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1669        if when:
1670            table = f"{table} {when}"
1671
1672        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1674    def tablesample_sql(
1675        self,
1676        expression: exp.TableSample,
1677        sep: str = " AS ",
1678        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1679    ) -> str:
1680        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1681            table = expression.this.copy()
1682            table.set("alias", None)
1683            this = self.sql(table)
1684            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1685        else:
1686            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1687            alias = ""
1688
1689        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1690        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1691        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1692        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1693        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1694        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1695        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1696        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1697        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1698
1699        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1700        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1701            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1702
1703        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1704        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1705            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1706
1707        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1708        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1709            expr = f"({expr})"
1710
1711        return (
1712            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1713        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1715    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1716        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1717
1718        if expression.this:
1719            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1720            if not expressions:
1721                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1722
1723            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1724            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1725            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1726            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1727            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1728
1729        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1730        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1731        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1732        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1733        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1734        if include_nulls is not None:
1735            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1736        else:
1737            nulls = ""
1738        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1740    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1741        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1742        kind = expression.text("kind")
1743        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1744        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1746    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1747        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1749    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1751        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1752        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1753        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1754        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1755        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1756        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1757        if self.RETURNING_END:
1758            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1759        else:
1760            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1761        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1762        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1764    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1765        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1766
1767        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1768        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1769            args = self.expressions(expression)
1770            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1771            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1772            values = (
1773                f"({values})"
1774                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1775                else values
1776            )
1777            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1778
1779        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1780        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1781        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1782
1783        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1784
1785        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1786            row = tup.expressions
1787
1788            if i == 0 and column_names:
1789                row = [
1790                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1791                ]
1792
1793            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1794
1795        if self.pretty:
1796            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1797            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1798            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1799            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1800            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1801
1802        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1803        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1804        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1806    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1807        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1809    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1810        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1811        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1812        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1814    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1815        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1817    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1818        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1819        if group_by_all is True:
1820            modifier = " ALL"
1821        elif group_by_all is False:
1822            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1823        else:
1824            modifier = ""
1825
1826        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1827
1828        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1829        grouping_sets = (
1830            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1831        )
1832
1833        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1834        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1835            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1836        else:
1837            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1838            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1839
1840        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1841        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1842            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1843        else:
1844            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1845            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1846
1847        groupings = csv(
1848            grouping_sets,
1849            cube_sql,
1850            rollup_sql,
1851            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1852            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1853        )
1854
1855        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1856            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1857
1858        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1860    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1861        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1862        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1864    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1865        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1866        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1867        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1868        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1869        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1870        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1872    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1873        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1875    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1876        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1877            side = None
1878        else:
1879            side = expression.side
1880
1881        op_sql = " ".join(
1882            op
1883            for op in (
1884                expression.method,
1885                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1886                side,
1887                expression.kind,
1888                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1889            )
1890            if op
1891        )
1892        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1893        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1894        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1895        using = expression.args.get("using")
1896
1897        if not on_sql and using:
1898            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1899
1900        this = expression.this
1901        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1902
1903        if on_sql:
1904            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1905            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1906            if using:
1907                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1908            else:
1909                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1910        elif not op_sql:
1911            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1912                return f" {this_sql}"
1913
1914            return f", {this_sql}"
1915
1916        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1917        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1919    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1920        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1921        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1922        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1924    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1925        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1926
1927        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1928        if cross_apply is True:
1929            op = "INNER JOIN "
1930        elif cross_apply is False:
1931            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1932        else:
1933            op = ""
1934
1935        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1937    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1939
1940        if expression.args.get("view"):
1941            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1942            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1943            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1944            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1945            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1946            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1947
1948        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1949        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1950        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1952    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1954
1955        args = [
1956            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1957            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1958            if e
1959        ]
1960
1961        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1962        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1963        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1964        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1965
1966        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1968    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1970        value = expression.expression
1971        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1972        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1973        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1974        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1976    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1977        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1978        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1980        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1981        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1982        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1983        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1984        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1986    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1987        expressions = (
1988            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1989        )
1990        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1991        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1993    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1994        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1996    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1997        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1998            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1999            return ""
2000
2001        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2002        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2003        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2004        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2005
2006        if wait is not None:
2007            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2008                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2009            else:
2010                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2011
2012        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2014    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2015        text = expression.this or ""
2016        if expression.is_string:
2017            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2018        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2020    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2021        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2022            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2023            text = "".join(
2024                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2025            )
2026
2027        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2028            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2029        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2031    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2032        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2033        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2034        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2035        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2036        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2037        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2038        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2039        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2040        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2041        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2042        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2044    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2045        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2047    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2048        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2050    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2052        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2053        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2054        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2055        interpolated_values = [
2056            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2057            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2058        ]
2059        interpolate = (
2060            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2061        )
2062        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2064    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2065        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2066        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2067        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2068        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2069        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2070        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2071        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2073    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2074        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2076    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2077        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2079    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2080        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2082    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2083        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2084        asc = not desc
2085
2086        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2087        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2088        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2089        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2090        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2091
2092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2093
2094        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2095        nulls_sort_change = ""
2096        if nulls_first and (
2097            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2098        ):
2099            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2100        elif (
2101            nulls_last
2102            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2103            and not nulls_are_last
2104        ):
2105            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2106
2107        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2108        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2109            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2110            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2111                self.unsupported(
2112                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2113                )
2114                nulls_sort_change = ""
2115            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2116                if expression.this.is_int:
2117                    self.unsupported(
2118                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2119                    )
2120                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2121                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2122                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2123                nulls_sort_change = ""
2124
2125        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2126        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2127
2128        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2130    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2131        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2132        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2133
2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2135
2136        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2138    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2139        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2140        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2141        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2142        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2143        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2144        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2145        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2146        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2147        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2148        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2149        definition_sqls = [
2150            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2151            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2152        ]
2153        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2154        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2155        body = "".join(
2156            (
2157                partition,
2158                order,
2159                measures,
2160                rows,
2161                after,
2162                pattern,
2163                define,
2164            )
2165        )
2166        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2167        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2168        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2170    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2171        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2172
2173        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2174            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2175        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2176            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2177
2178        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2179        if options:
2180            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2181
2182        return csv(
2183            *sqls,
2184            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2185            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2186            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2187            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2188            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2189            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2190            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2191            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2192            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2193            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2194            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2195            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2196            options,
2197            sep="",
2198        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2200    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2201        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2203    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2204        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2205    ) -> t.List[str]:
2206        return [
2207            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2208            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2209        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2211    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2212        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2213        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2214        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2216    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2217        into = expression.args.get("into")
2218        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2219            into.pop()
2220
2221        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2222        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2223        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2224        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2225
2226        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2227        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2228            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2229            limit.pop()
2230        else:
2231            top = ""
2232
2233        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2234
2235        if kind:
2236            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2237                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2238            else:
2239                if kind == "STRUCT":
2240                    expressions = self.expressions(
2241                        sqls=[
2242                            self.sql(
2243                                exp.Struct(
2244                                    expressions=[
2245                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2246                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2247                                        else e
2248                                        for e in expression.expressions
2249                                    ]
2250                                )
2251                            )
2252                        ]
2253                    )
2254                kind = ""
2255
2256        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2257        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2258        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2259        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2260        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2261            expression,
2262            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2263            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2264            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2265        )
2266
2267        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2268
2269        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2270            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2271                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2272            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2273                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2274            else:
2275                table_kind = ""
2276            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2277
2278        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2280    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2282        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2283        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2285    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2286        if expression.expressions:
2287            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2288        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2290    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2291        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2292        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2293        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2294        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2295        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2297    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2301    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2302        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2303        kind = expression.text("kind")
2304        if kind:
2305            kind = f"{kind}."
2306        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2308    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2309        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2311    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2312        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2313        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2314
2315        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2316        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2317
2318        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2319        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2321    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2322        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2323        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2325    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2326        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2327            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2328            order = expression.args.get("order")
2329
2330            if limit or order:
2331                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2332
2333                if limit:
2334                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2335                if order:
2336                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2337                return self.sql(select)
2338
2339        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2340        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2341
2342        while stack:
2343            node = stack.pop()
2344
2345            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2346                stack.append(node.expression)
2347                stack.append(
2348                    self.maybe_comment(
2349                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2350                        comments=node.comments,
2351                        separated=True,
2352                    )
2353                )
2354                stack.append(node.this)
2355            else:
2356                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2357
2358        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2359        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2360        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2362    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2363        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2365    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2366        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2367        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2368        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2369        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2371    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2372        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2373
2374        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2375        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2376
2377        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2378            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2379                alias.append("columns", offset)
2380
2381        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2382            columns = alias.columns
2383            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2384        else:
2385            alias = self.sql(alias)
2386
2387        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2388        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2389            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2390        else:
2391            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2392                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2393            elif offset:
2394                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2395            else:
2396                suffix = alias
2397
2398        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2400    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2401        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2403    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2404        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2405        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2407    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2408        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2409        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2410        order = expression.args.get("order")
2411        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2412        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2413        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2414        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2415
2416        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2417
2418        first = expression.args.get("first")
2419        if first is None:
2420            first = ""
2421        else:
2422            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2423
2424        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2425            return f"{this} {alias}"
2426
2427        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2428        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2430    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2431        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2432        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2434    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2435        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2436        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2437        end = (
2438            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2439            or "CURRENT ROW"
2440        )
2441        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2443    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2445        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2446        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2448    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2450        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2451        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2452        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2454    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2455        return apply_index_offset(
2456            expression.this,
2457            expression.expressions,
2458            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2459        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2461    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2462        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2463        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2464        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2466    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2467        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2469    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2470        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2471        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2472            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2473                this = self.wrap(this)
2474            return f"ANY{this}"
2475        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2477    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2478        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2480    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2481        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2482        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2483
2484        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2485            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2486            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2487
2488        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2489
2490        if default:
2491            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2492
2493        statements.append("END")
2494
2495        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2496            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2497
2498        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2500    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2502        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2503        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2505    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2506        order = expression.args.get("order")
2507        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2508        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2510    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2512        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2513        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2515    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2516        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2517
2518        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2519            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2520        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2521            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2522        else:
2523            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2525    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2526        args = expression.expressions
2527        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2528            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2529
2530        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2531            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2532
2533        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2534            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2535
2536        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2538    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2539        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2540
2541        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2542        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2543            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2544
2545        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2547    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2548        return self.func(
2549            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2550        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2552    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2553        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2554        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2556    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2557        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2558        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2559        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2560        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2561        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2562        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2563        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2564        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2566    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2567        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2568        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2569        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2570        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2572    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2573        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2575    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2576        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2577        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2578        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2580    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2581        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2583    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2584        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2585        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2587    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2588        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2589            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2590            if not callable(transform):
2591                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2592                return ""
2593
2594            return transform(self, expression)
2595
2596        if isinstance(expression, int):
2597            return str(expression)
2598
2599        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2600            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2601            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2602        else:
2603            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2604            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2605
2606        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2608    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2609        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2611    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2612        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2613        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2614
2615        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2616        if unique_keys is not None:
2617            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2618        else:
2619            unique_keys = ""
2620
2621        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2622        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2623        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2624        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2625
2626        return self.func(
2627            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2628            *expression.expressions,
2629            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2630        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2632    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2633        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2635    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2636        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2637        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2638        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2639        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2640        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2641        return self.func(
2642            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2643        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2645    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2647        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2648        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2649        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2650        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2651        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2652        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2653        return self.func(
2654            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2655            this,
2656            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2657        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2659    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2660        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2661        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2662        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2663
2664        if nested_schema:
2665            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2666
2667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2668        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2669        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2670        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2672    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2673        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2675    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2677        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2678        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2679        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2680        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2681        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2682        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2683        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2684        return self.func(
2685            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2686        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2688    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2690        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2691        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2692        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2693        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2694        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2696    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2698        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2699        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2700        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2701        with_ = (
2702            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2703            if expressions
2704            else ""
2705        )
2706        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2708    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2709        query = expression.args.get("query")
2710        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2711        field = expression.args.get("field")
2712        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2713
2714        if query:
2715            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2716        elif unnest:
2717            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2718        elif field:
2719            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2720        else:
2721            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2722
2723        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2725    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2726        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2728    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2729        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2730        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2731            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2732        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2733
2734        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2735            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2736            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2737
2738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2739        if this:
2740            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2741            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2742
2743        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2745    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2746        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2748    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2751        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2752        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2753        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2754        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2756    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2757        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2759    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2760        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2761        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2763    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2764        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2765        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2766        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2767        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2769    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2770        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2772    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2773        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2774        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2775        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2777    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2778        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2779        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2780
2781        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2782            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2783        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2784            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2785
2786        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2788    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2789        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2791    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2793        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2794        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2796    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2798        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2799        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2801    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2803        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2804        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2806    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2807        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2809    def and_sql(
2810        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2811    ) -> str:
2812        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2814    def or_sql(
2815        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2816    ) -> str:
2817        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2819    def xor_sql(
2820        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2821    ) -> str:
2822        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2824    def connector_sql(
2825        self,
2826        expression: exp.Connector,
2827        op: str,
2828        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2829    ) -> str:
2830        if stack is not None:
2831            if expression.expressions:
2832                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2833            else:
2834                stack.append(expression.right)
2835                if expression.comments:
2836                    for comment in expression.comments:
2837                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2838                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2839            return op
2840
2841        stack = [expression]
2842        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2843        ops = set()
2844
2845        while stack:
2846            node = stack.pop()
2847            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2848                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2849            else:
2850                sql = self.sql(node)
2851                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2852                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2853                else:
2854                    sqls.append(sql)
2855
2856        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2857        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2859    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2860        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2862    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2863        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2865    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2866        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2868    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2869        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2871    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2872        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2874    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2875        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2877    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2878        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2879        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2880        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2881        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2882        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2883        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2884        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2886    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2887        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2888        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2890    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2891        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2893    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2894        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2895            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2896        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2898    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2899        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2901    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2903        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2904        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2905        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2906        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2907        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2909    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2911        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2912        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2913        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2914        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2915        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2916        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2917        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2918        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2920    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2921        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2922        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2923        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2924        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2925
2926        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2927            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2928
2929        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2931    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2932        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2934    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2935        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2936        if chain is not None:
2937            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2938
2939        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2941    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2942        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2943        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2944        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2946    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2948
2949        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2950        if dtype:
2951            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2952            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2953            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2954            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2955            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2956
2957        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2958        if default:
2959            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2960
2961        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2962        if comment:
2963            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2964
2965        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2966            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2967
2968        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2970    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2971        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2972            # Remove db from tables
2973            expression = expression.transform(
2974                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2975            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2977        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
2979    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2980        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2981        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2982        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2983        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2985    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2986        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2987
2988        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2989            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2990        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2991            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2992        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2993            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2994        else:
2995            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2996
2997        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2998        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2999        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3000        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3001        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3003    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3004        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3005            return self.expressions(
3006                expression,
3007                key="actions",
3008                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3009            )
3010        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3012    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3013        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3014        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3015        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3017    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3018        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3020    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3021        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3022
3023        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3024            case = exp.case()
3025            for arg in expression.expressions:
3026                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3027            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3028
3029        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3030
3031        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3032        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3033        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3035    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3036        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3038    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3039        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3041    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3042        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3043        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3044        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3045        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3047    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3048        return self.sql(
3049            exp.Cast(
3050                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3051                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3052            )
3053        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3055    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3056        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3057            return self.func(
3058                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3059            )
3060        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3062    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3063        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3064
3065        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3066            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3067
3068        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3069            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3070                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3071
3072        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3073            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3074                return self.sql(
3075                    exp.cast(
3076                        l / r,
3077                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3078                    )
3079                )
3080
3081        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3083    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3084        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3086    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3087        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3089    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3090        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3092    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3093        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3095    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3098    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3099        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3101    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3104    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3107    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3110    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3111        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3113    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3114        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3116    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3117        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3118            return self.sql(
3119                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3120            )
3121        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3123    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3124        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3126    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3127        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3129    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3130        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3132    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3133        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3135    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3136        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3138    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3139        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3141    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3142        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3144    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3145        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3147    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3148        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3150    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3151        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3153    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3154        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3156    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3157        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3159    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3160        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3162    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3163        this = expression.this
3164        expr = expression.expression
3165
3166        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3167            this, expr = expr, this
3168        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3169            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3170                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3171
3172            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3173
3174        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3176    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3177        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3178        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3180        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3181        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3183    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3184        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3185        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3187    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3188        args = []
3189
3190        for key in expression.arg_types:
3191            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3192
3193            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3194                for value in arg_value:
3195                    args.append(value)
3196            elif arg_value is not None:
3197                args.append(arg_value)
3198
3199        if self.normalize_functions:
3200            name = expression.sql_name()
3201        else:
3202            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3203
3204        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3206    def func(
3207        self,
3208        name: str,
3209        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3210        prefix: str = "(",
3211        suffix: str = ")",
3212    ) -> str:
3213        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3215    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3216        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3217        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3218            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3219        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3221    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3222        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3224    def format_time(
3225        self,
3226        expression: exp.Expression,
3227        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3228        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3229    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3230        return format_time(
3231            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3232            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3233            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3234        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3236    def expressions(
3237        self,
3238        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3239        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3240        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3241        flat: bool = False,
3242        indent: bool = True,
3243        skip_first: bool = False,
3244        skip_last: bool = False,
3245        sep: str = ", ",
3246        prefix: str = "",
3247        dynamic: bool = False,
3248        new_line: bool = False,
3249    ) -> str:
3250        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3251
3252        if not expressions:
3253            return ""
3254
3255        if flat:
3256            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3257
3258        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3259
3260        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3261        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3262            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3263
3264        result_sqls = []
3265        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3266            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3267            if not sql:
3268                continue
3269
3270            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3271
3272            if self.pretty:
3273                if self.leading_comma:
3274                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3275                else:
3276                    result_sqls.append(
3277                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3278                    )
3279            else:
3280                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3281
3282        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3283            if new_line:
3284                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3285                result_sqls.append("")
3286            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3287        else:
3288            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3289        return (
3290            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3291            if indent
3292            else result_sql
3293        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3295    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3296        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3297        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3298        if flat:
3299            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3300        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3302    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3303        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3304        if not property_name:
3305            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3306        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3308    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3309        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3311    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3312        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3314    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3316        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3317        expressions = (
3318            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3319        )
3320        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3322    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3324        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3325        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3327    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3328        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3330    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3331        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3332        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3333        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3334        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3335
3336        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3337        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3338            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3339            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3340                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3341        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3342            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3343                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3344            else:
3345                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3346        else:
3347            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3348        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3350    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3351        table = expression.this
3352        table_alias = ""
3353
3354        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3355        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3356            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3357            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3358
3359        this = self.sql(table)
3360        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3361        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3362        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3363
3364        return self.prepend_ctes(
3365            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3366        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3368    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3369        if expression.args.get("format"):
3370            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3371
3372        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3374    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3375        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3376            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3377            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3378
3379        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3380        if not fmt:
3381            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3382            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3383
3384        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3386    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3388        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3389        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3390        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3391        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3393    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3395        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3396        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3397        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3399    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3400        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3402    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3403        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3405    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3406        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3407        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3408        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3409        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3410        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3412    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3414        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3415
3416        if having:
3417            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3418
3419        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3421    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3422        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3423        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3424        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3425        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3426        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3427        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3428        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3429        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3430        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3431        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3432        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3433        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3434        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3436    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3437        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3438        if key_block_size:
3439            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3440
3441        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3442        if using:
3443            return f"USING {using}"
3444
3445        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3446        if parser:
3447            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3448
3449        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3450        if comment:
3451            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3452
3453        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3454        if visible is not None:
3455            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3456
3457        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3458        if engine_attr:
3459            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3460
3461        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3462        if secondary_engine_attr:
3463            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3464
3465        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3466        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3468    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3469        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3470        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3472    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3473        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3474        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3475        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3476        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3477        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3478        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3479        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3480        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3481        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3482        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3483        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3485    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3486        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3487            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3488
3489        case = exp.Case().when(
3490            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3491            expression.args["true"],
3492            copy=False,
3493        )
3494        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3495        if else_cond:
3496            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3497
3498        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3500    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3502        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3503        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3504        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3505        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3506        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3508    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3509        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3511    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3512        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3514    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3515        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3516        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3517        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3518        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3519        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3520        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3522    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3524        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3525        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3527    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3529        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3530        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3532    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3533        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3535    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3536        arg = expression.this
3537        if not arg.type:
3538            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3539
3540            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3541
3542        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3543            return self.sql(arg)
3544
3545        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3546        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3548    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3549        this = expression.this
3550        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3551            return self.sql(this)
3552
3553        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3555    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3556        this = expression.this
3557        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3558            return self.sql(this)
3559
3560        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3562    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3563        this = expression.this
3564        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3565
3566        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3567            return self.sql(
3568                exp.cast(
3569                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3570                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3571                )
3572            )
3573
3574        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3575            return self.sql(this)
3576
3577        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3579    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3580        return self.sql(
3581            exp.func(
3582                "DATEDIFF",
3583                expression.this,
3584                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3585                "day",
3586            )
3587        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3589    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3590        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3591            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3592
3593        unit = expression.text("unit")
3594        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3595            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3596
3597        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3599    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3600        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3601
3602        return self.func(
3603            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3604        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3606    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3607        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3608            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3609            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3610            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3611            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3612
3613        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3614
3615        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3616        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3617            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3618
3619        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3621    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3622        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3623        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3625    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3626        expression.set(
3627            "expressions",
3628            [
3629                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3630                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3631                else e
3632                for e in expression.expressions
3633            ],
3634        )
3635
3636        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3638    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3639        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3640        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3641
3642        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3644    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3645        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3646        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3647
3648        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3649
3650        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3651        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3652
3653        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3654        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3655
3656        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3657        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3658
3659        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3660        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3661
3662        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3666    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3667        to = expression.this
3668        value = expression.expression
3669        style = expression.args.get("style")
3670        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3671        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3672
3673        if not to or not value:
3674            return ""
3675
3676        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3677        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3678            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3679
3680        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3681        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3682
3683        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3684        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3685            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3686
3687            style_value = style.name
3688            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3689            if not converted_style:
3690                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3691
3692            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3693
3694            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3695                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3696            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3697                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3698            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3699                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3700            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3701                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3702
3703        if not transformed:
3704            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3705
3706        return self.sql(transformed)